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'''Fire service access''' is the set of provisions that let the fire service reach a building, bring water and equipment to a fire, and carry out [[firefighting]] and rescue inside with reasonable safety. In New Zealand, the Building Code clauses restated in Verification Method C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) cover a hard-standing for fire vehicles, water throughout the building, routes to the fire floor and information for firefighters.<ref name="CVM2-53">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 53.</ref> The International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005 edition) treat access to the site and to the building as part of fire services intervention, one of the six sub-systems of a fire safety design.<ref name="IFEG-1.2-10">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-10.</ref> Access matters because the time needed to bring water to a fire affects how far the fire develops and whether it can still be suppressed.<ref name="NIPV-66">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 66.</ref> A fire service that arrives after the fire has grown beyond flashover may have no effect on it at all.<ref name="IFEG-1.9-7">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-7.</ref> Requirements differ between countries: New Zealand, Australia and the Netherlands each set their own conditions, and Dutch building regulations count the preservation of fire service attack routes among their sub-goals.<ref name="VR-1.2">Van Rossum (2027), §1.2.</ref>
'''Fire service access''' is the set of provisions that let the fire service reach a building, deliver water to every part of it, and carry out [[firefighting]] and rescue inside with reasonable safety.<ref name="CVM2-53">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 53.</ref><ref name="IFEG-1.2-10">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-10.</ref> In New Zealand, the Building Code clauses restated in Verification Method C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) cover a hard-standing for fire vehicles, water throughout the building, routes to the fire floor and information for firefighters.<ref name="CVM2-53" /> The International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005 edition) treat access to the site and to the building as part of fire services intervention, one of the six sub-systems of a fire safety design.<ref name="IFEG-1.2-10" /> Access matters because the time needed to bring water to a fire affects how far the fire develops and whether it can still be suppressed.<ref name="NIPV-66">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 66.</ref> A fire service that arrives after the fire has grown beyond flashover may have no effect on it at all.<ref name="IFEG-1.9-7">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-7.</ref> Requirements differ between countries; in the Netherlands, for example, the Building Works and Living Environment Decree (Bbl) counts the preservation of fire service attack routes among its sub-goals.<ref name="VR-1.2">Van Rossum (2027), §1.2.</ref>


== What fire service access includes ==
== What fire service access includes ==
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In Australia, the handbook to the Fire Safety Verification Method (print version 1.1, 2020) lists facilities for firefighting among the broad fire safety objectives of the National Construction Code.<ref name="ABCBH-27">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 27.</ref> It calls for a firefighter strategy, a plan by which the fire brigade is notified of the fire and its location and gains access to the site. The brigade also receives the correct fire location and communication facilities on arrival, documents on the fire safety strategy, and a set-up area with facilities for firefighting and for search and rescue. The plan has to be developed with the fire authority, using the Fire Brigade Intervention Model where appropriate.<ref name="ABCBH-29">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 29.</ref>
In Australia, the handbook to the Fire Safety Verification Method (print version 1.1, 2020) lists facilities for firefighting among the broad fire safety objectives of the National Construction Code.<ref name="ABCBH-27">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 27.</ref> It calls for a firefighter strategy, a plan by which the fire brigade is notified of the fire and its location and gains access to the site. The brigade also receives the correct fire location and communication facilities on arrival, documents on the fire safety strategy, and a set-up area with facilities for firefighting and for search and rescue. The plan has to be developed with the fire authority, using the Fire Brigade Intervention Model where appropriate.<ref name="ABCBH-29">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 29.</ref>


The International Fire Engineering Guidelines cover public fire services as well as private ones, such as the fire brigade of an industrial complex.<ref name="IFEG-1.9-1">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-1.</ref> For this sub-system they list measures such as the type of fire service, full-time or volunteer, its capability and resources, access to the site and the building, and water supplies.<ref name="IFEG-1.2-10" /> Dutch building regulations keep the attack routes of the fire service intact as one of their sub-goals.<ref name="VR-1.2" /> A non-enclosed space through which an escape route runs must also remove enough heat and smoke, and admit enough fresh air, to stay usable for escape, rescue and firefighting work.<ref name="VR-7.7">Van Rossum (2027), §7.7.</ref>
The International Fire Engineering Guidelines cover public fire services as well as private ones, such as the fire brigade of an industrial complex.<ref name="IFEG-1.9-1">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-1.</ref> For this sub-system they list measures such as the type of fire service, full-time or volunteer, its capability and resources, access to the site and the building, and water supplies.<ref name="IFEG-1.2-10" /> In the Netherlands, the Bbl keeps the attack routes of the fire service intact as one of its sub-goals.<ref name="VR-1.2" /> Under the Bbl, a non-enclosed space through which an escape route runs must also remove enough heat and smoke, and admit enough fresh air, to stay usable for escape, rescue and firefighting work.<ref name="VR-7.7">Van Rossum (2027), §7.7.</ref>


== How access affects the time to intervention ==
== How access affects the time to intervention ==
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[[File:fse-fire-service-access-v2.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Hydrant feeds a pumper, while an inlet feeds a riser and hose outlets inside a building.|Hydrants, inlets and internal risers have distinct functions. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. F-25–F-26 and F-61–F-62, and Hopkins et al. (2005), pp. xxxiv–xxxv.]]
[[File:fse-fire-service-access-v2.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Hydrant feeds a pumper, while an inlet feeds a riser and hose outlets inside a building.|Hydrants, inlets and internal risers have distinct functions. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. F-25–F-26 and F-61–F-62, and Hopkins et al. (2005), pp. xxxiv–xxxv.]]


The documents also limit how far water may have to be carried. Under C/VM2, a pumping appliance parked close to the building must be able to reach any point inside within 75 m, about three hose lengths. Otherwise an internal hydrant is needed, designed to NZS 4510 or approved by the National Commander of Fire and Emergency New Zealand.<ref name="CVM2-54">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), pp. 54–55.</ref> C/VM2 treats access to an intermediate floor as achieved when a hydrant in a safe path lies within 40 m of its most remote point, about two hose lengths.<ref name="CVM2-55">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 55.</ref> Australia's 2022 standard requires internal hydrants in a sprinklered building when reaching all points needs more than 100 m or the building has more than three levels. Without sprinklers the distance threshold is 70 m.<ref name="FSVM-16" />
New Zealand and Australian rules also limit how far water may have to be carried. Under C/VM2, a pumping appliance parked close to the building must be able to reach any point inside within 75 m, about three hose lengths. Otherwise an internal hydrant is needed, designed to NZS 4510 or approved by the National Commander of Fire and Emergency New Zealand.<ref name="CVM2-54">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), pp. 54–55.</ref> C/VM2 treats access to an intermediate floor as achieved when a hydrant in a safe path lies within 40 m of its most remote point, about two hose lengths.<ref name="CVM2-55">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 55.</ref> Australia's 2022 standard requires internal hydrants in a sprinklered building when reaching all points needs more than 100 m or the building has more than three levels. Without sprinklers the distance threshold is 70 m.<ref name="FSVM-16" />


Risers shorten the hose that firefighters must lay. The NIPV study notes that a dry riser can shorten the attack time because less hose has to be rolled out. Its most effective location is where the fire service enters the car park.<ref name="NIPV-66" /> A NIST report on the World Trade Center states that avoiding long hose lays from the fire engine to an upper floor of a tall building improves the initial attack. It adds that standpipes are not an alternative to automatic sprinklers.<ref name="Hopkins-21" />
Risers shorten the hose that firefighters must lay. The NIPV study notes that a dry riser can shorten the attack time because less hose has to be rolled out. Its most effective location is where the fire service enters the car park.<ref name="NIPV-66" /> A NIST report on the World Trade Center states that avoiding long hose lays from the fire engine to an upper floor of a tall building improves the initial attack. It adds that standpipes are not an alternative to automatic sprinklers.<ref name="Hopkins-21" />
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A positive engineering result does not oblige firefighters to attack from inside the building. Van Rossum stresses that this decision always rests with the fire service on site.<ref name="VR-9.3" /> Likewise, the C/VM2 limits describe a single moment, and later operations are decided by the officer in charge according to the conditions found.<ref name="Comm-149" />
A positive engineering result does not oblige firefighters to attack from inside the building. Van Rossum stresses that this decision always rests with the fire service on site.<ref name="VR-9.3" /> Likewise, the C/VM2 limits describe a single moment, and later operations are decided by the officer in charge according to the conditions found.<ref name="Comm-149" />


Fire service intervention is also hard to quantify. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines note that its effect does not lend itself easily to calculation, so many aspects rest on qualitative judgement.<ref name="IFEG-2.9-2" /> The FBIM values come from Australian data only, and the World Trade Center data describe a single event in 2001.<ref name="IFEG-3.9-2" /><ref name="Lawson-xliii" />
Fire service intervention is also hard to quantify. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines note that its effect does not lend itself easily to calculation, so many aspects rest on qualitative judgement.<ref name="IFEG-2.9-2" /> The FBIM values come from Australian data only.<ref name="IFEG-3.9-2" />


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 19:37, 2 November 2026

Fire service access is the set of provisions that let the fire service reach a building, deliver water to every part of it, and carry out firefighting and rescue inside with reasonable safety.[1][2] In New Zealand, the Building Code clauses restated in Verification Method C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) cover a hard-standing for fire vehicles, water throughout the building, routes to the fire floor and information for firefighters.[1] The International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005 edition) treat access to the site and to the building as part of fire services intervention, one of the six sub-systems of a fire safety design.[2] Access matters because the time needed to bring water to a fire affects how far the fire develops and whether it can still be suppressed.[3] A fire service that arrives after the fire has grown beyond flashover may have no effect on it at all.[4] Requirements differ between countries; in the Netherlands, for example, the Building Works and Living Environment Decree (Bbl) counts the preservation of fire service attack routes among its sub-goals.[5]

What fire service access includes

New Zealand's Building Code clause C5 deals with access and safety for firefighting operations. Its functional requirements, as printed in the 2013 commentary, ask for a low probability that firefighters are delayed or impeded, and a low probability that they are injured or made ill.[6] Verification Method C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) restates the performance clauses. Fire service vehicles need a hard-standing from which an unobstructed path leads to the building within 20 m of the firefighter entrance and of any sprinkler or hydrant inlets. Firefighters, with their protective equipment and standard training, must be able to reach the floor of fire origin, search the area around it and protect their way out.[1] Clear information about the fire and the building is also required, and the structure that carries the access routes must stay stable during and after the fire.[1]

Arrival leads through hard-standing, connections and internal routes to firefighting and egress.
Fire service access connects vehicles, equipment, personnel and safe withdrawal. Based on Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), pp. 53–55.

In Australia, the handbook to the Fire Safety Verification Method (print version 1.1, 2020) lists facilities for firefighting among the broad fire safety objectives of the National Construction Code.[7] It calls for a firefighter strategy, a plan by which the fire brigade is notified of the fire and its location and gains access to the site. The brigade also receives the correct fire location and communication facilities on arrival, documents on the fire safety strategy, and a set-up area with facilities for firefighting and for search and rescue. The plan has to be developed with the fire authority, using the Fire Brigade Intervention Model where appropriate.[8]

The International Fire Engineering Guidelines cover public fire services as well as private ones, such as the fire brigade of an industrial complex.[9] For this sub-system they list measures such as the type of fire service, full-time or volunteer, its capability and resources, access to the site and the building, and water supplies.[2] In the Netherlands, the Bbl keeps the attack routes of the fire service intact as one of its sub-goals.[5] Under the Bbl, a non-enclosed space through which an escape route runs must also remove enough heat and smoke, and admit enough fresh air, to stay usable for escape, rescue and firefighting work.[10]

How access affects the time to intervention

The International Fire Engineering Guidelines describe intervention as a sequence of steps, each of which takes time. The fire service has to be notified, dispatched and driven to the site, and a station with full-time paid firefighters is likely to respond faster than one run by volunteers.[11] On arrival, crews locate the fire from installed equipment, from occupants and from the sight of smoke and flames. They then move vehicles, hoses and other equipment into position, a step that fire conditions in or near the building may affect. Search and rescue and the attack follow, and the attack can be offensive, putting water on the fire, or defensive, protecting adjoining property with hose streams, or both.[12]

Access shapes several of these steps. The location of a building and the access to it affect the travel time, while its size, layout and signage affect investigation, search, rescue and firefighting. The location of hydrants, fire indicator panels and other fire service facilities affects how efficiently the fire is suppressed.[13] The guidelines also warn that this sub-system changes over the life of a building, as fire station locations, budgets, equipment and traffic density change.[11]

The arrival time largely decides what an attack can achieve, and the guidelines distinguish three outcomes: no effect, control and extinguishment. No effect fits a fire service that arrives after the fire has grown beyond flashover. Control, in which the fire burns at a steady size until the fuel is used up, is a conservative assumption often made when access to the fire is limited.[4] A risk model in the SFPE Handbook likewise judges the effectiveness of firefighting from the time of flashover and the arrival time of the fire brigade.[14] Studies of fires in health care buildings, quoted by Bryan, single out the period between detection and the arrival of the fire department. They see it as the most important life-saving period for the area in direct contact with the room of origin.[15]

In Australia the main tool for estimating these times is the Fire Brigade Intervention Model (FBIM) of the Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC).[16] It is built from up to 16 flow charts for steps such as notification, dispatch, travel, putting on safety equipment and setting up the water supply.[17] It can estimate, for example, how long firefighters need to reach a given location in a building.[18] Its numerical values were prepared solely from Australian data, but because no other country has compiled such a guide, they may have at least a semi-quantitative use elsewhere.[19]

Vehicle access and hard-standing

New Zealand's C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) repeats clause C5.3: a hard-standing from which an unobstructed path leads to the building within 20 m of the firefighter entrance and any sprinkler or hydrant inlets. Under clause C5.4, firecells larger than 5,000 m² without sprinklers need such access on more than one side.[1] The 2013 commentary adds that these access points should be spread around the building, not placed on both sides of one corner served by the same hard-standing. It also notes that the clauses use conventional methods that the Fire Service can easily anticipate, so unusual solutions should be agreed with it in advance.[20] According to the commentary, clauses C5.3 to C5.8 do not apply to detached dwellings, the inside of household units in multi-unit dwellings, backcountry huts, outbuildings or ancillary buildings.[6]

In Australia, the Fire Safety Verification Method Standard 2022 requires external fire brigade access and external hydrants for every building assessed under its fire brigade intervention scenario.[21] That scenario applies only to buildings within 50 km road travel of a fire station.[22] For buildings further away, the 2020 handbook states that fire brigade intervention should not be taken into account, and that the design brief should address its absence and any need for compensating measures.[23]

Indoor car parks show how access can limit firefighting in practice. A study by the Netherlands Institute for Public Safety (NIPV) names heat, loss of visibility, long hose distances and the difficulty of finding one's bearings. Together they make reconnaissance and firefighting in such car parks difficult and risky.[24] It recommends placing charging spaces for electric vehicles near the vehicle entrances and exits and at street level where possible. This aids accessibility and raises the chance that a fire can be fought from outside or the vehicle removed more quickly.[25] Higher decks are not always easy to reach, and a fire service entrance that is also an escape route creates conflicting safety interests.[26]

Water for firefighting: hydrants, inlets and risers

A Fire hydrant is a device that supplies water to fire department pumpers for fighting fires in buildings.[27] A fire department connection is an inlet through which the fire service pumps water from its vehicles into the fire protection system of a building.[28] Inside, a standpipe or riser system of pipes, valves and hose connections carries the water to the floors. Trained occupants can use its hoses until the fire department arrives, and firefighters can connect their own hoses to outlets near the fire.[29] Dry and wet risers differ in how they are filled. A wet system is always full of water and connected to an automatic supply, whereas a manual dry system has only fire department connections and relies on the fire service for water.[30][29]

Hydrant feeds a pumper, while an inlet feeds a riser and hose outlets inside a building.
Hydrants, inlets and internal risers have distinct functions. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. F-25–F-26 and F-61–F-62, and Hopkins et al. (2005), pp. xxxiv–xxxv.

New Zealand and Australian rules also limit how far water may have to be carried. Under C/VM2, a pumping appliance parked close to the building must be able to reach any point inside within 75 m, about three hose lengths. Otherwise an internal hydrant is needed, designed to NZS 4510 or approved by the National Commander of Fire and Emergency New Zealand.[31] C/VM2 treats access to an intermediate floor as achieved when a hydrant in a safe path lies within 40 m of its most remote point, about two hose lengths.[32] Australia's 2022 standard requires internal hydrants in a sprinklered building when reaching all points needs more than 100 m or the building has more than three levels. Without sprinklers the distance threshold is 70 m.[21]

Risers shorten the hose that firefighters must lay. The NIPV study notes that a dry riser can shorten the attack time because less hose has to be rolled out. Its most effective location is where the fire service enters the car park.[3] A NIST report on the World Trade Center states that avoiding long hose lays from the fire engine to an upper floor of a tall building improves the initial attack. It adds that standpipes are not an alternative to automatic sprinklers.[30]

An accessible inlet does not guarantee water. Sprinkler and pump systems can fail because of a closed supply valve, an empty tank, a fire pump that does not start or loses its power, or an inadequate supply.[33] At World Trade Center 7, the sprinklers on floors 1 to 20 depended on one automatic fire pump and on the city main near the building.[34] After the collapse of WTC 1, the fire department could not provide firefighting or supplementary water to WTC 7.[35] C/VM2 asks that access and firefighter safety be designed with regard to the likelihood and consequences of failure of any fire safety system.[1]

Reaching the fire floor: stairs, lifts and high-rise buildings

C/VM2 links the protection of the internal route to the height of the building. Where the escape height exceeds 10 m, floors that cannot be reached directly from street level must be served by fire-separated stairways that resist fire spread until burnout. In lower buildings these stairways must last 60 minutes from ignition or until burnout.[32] Pressurised stairwells keep smoke out by holding the stair at a higher air pressure than the fire floor. Their main aim is a smoke-free escape route, and a secondary aim is a smoke-free staging area for firefighters.[36]

In a high-rise building the climb itself becomes a barrier. NIST's study of the emergency response at the World Trade Center notes that a New York firefighter in full protective clothing and breathing apparatus carries about 23 kg. Extra equipment can add another 23 kg or more.[37] Fully equipped firefighters climbed WTC 1 at about 2.0 minutes per floor, and their fitness for rescue and firefighting fell with every floor climbed.[37][38] Another NIST report gives a typical pace of about one minute per floor, which is hard to sustain beyond about the first 20 storeys. Even at that pace, reaching the 60th floor would take about an hour.[39]

A firefighting lift removes most of that climb. When a fire is detected, lifts are normally taken out of service and recalled to the ground floor. Fire services carry keys that let them run the lifts for rescue and to carry crews and equipment towards the fire.[40] In 2005, NIST found that US building codes, with a few exceptions, did not permit fire-protected lifts for routine access by first responders. The United Kingdom and other countries using British standards had required such firefighter lifts in protected shafts for a number of years.[39] NIST's final report recommended fire-protected and structurally hardened lifts in tall buildings, reserved for emergency responders during emergencies.[41]

Each World Trade Center tower had four vertical water supply zones, with standpipes in the stairwells feeding hose stations on every floor. Manual fire pumps on the 7th, 41st and 75th floors boosted the pressure, and fourteen ground-level fire department connections served the complex.[42] New York City's 2003 building code requires emergency power in new high-rise office buildings for fire pumps, at least three lifts, alarms, emergency lighting and smoke control.[43]

Conditions firefighters can work in

Access is only useful if conditions at the end of the route allow work. New Zealand's clause C3.8 covers unsprinklered firecells within 15 m of a relevant boundary with a fire load above 20 TJ or a floor area above 5,000 m². When firefighters first apply water to such a fire, the radiation at 1.5 m above the floor may not exceed 4.5 kW/m², and the smoke layer must be at least 2 m above the floor.[1] C/VM2 lets designers take the time until water is first applied as 1,200 s (20 minutes), or 1,000 s with an automatic alarm connected directly to a remote receiving centre. Another time may be used if a fire brigade intervention model supports it.[31] The 2013 commentary on the first edition explains that the same values are rounded 95th percentiles from New Zealand industrial fires, about 1,240 s with a monitored alarm and 1,060 s with a direct connection.[44]

Australia's 2020 handbook summarises firefighter limits from the FBIM manual, measured 1.5 m above the floor and to be confirmed with the fire brigade. In routine conditions firefighters may work for up to 25 minutes at up to 100 °C and 1 kW/m². In hazardous conditions the limits are 10 minutes, 120 °C and 3 kW/m².[45] Extreme conditions, such as a snatch rescue or a retreat from flashover, allow 1 minute at 160 °C and 4 to 4.5 kW/m². Above 235 °C or 10 kW/m² conditions are life-threatening, and no search and rescue is possible in a room after flashover.[45][46] Poor visibility is not a limit in itself, but it slows search and firefighting, and the air supply of the breathing apparatus may run out first.[47]

In the Netherlands, the standard NEN 6093 on smoke and heat exhaust systems sets limits for a fire service attack in a space with such a system. Visibility must be at least 100 m to light-emitting objects up to 1.8 m above the floor, and radiation from the smoke layer at most 3.5 kW/m² at that height. The smoke layer may reach 200 °C where goods are stored in it and 500 °C otherwise, and it must stay below the critical temperature of the structure.[48] Van Rossum adds that firefighters need to know whether the fire is still local or already a compartment fire, and whether they can attack with the fire in sight.[48]

The structure must also hold long enough. C/VM2 requires the structure that gives firefighters access to floors to remain stable during and after the fire, with its fire resistance derived from a full burnout design fire.[1][31] Australia's 2022 standard pairs its fire brigade intervention scenario with a scenario that guards against unexpected catastrophic structural failure.[21]

Information, communication and upkeep

Firefighters arriving at a building need to know where the fire is and what they can use. New Zealand's clause C5.7 asks for clear information on the general location of the fire, the available fire safety systems and any hazardous substances or processes.[1] Australia's 2022 standard asks for command and control provisions in unsprinklered buildings and in sprinklered buildings of more than three levels.[21] New York City's 2003 code requires two-way voice communication and a fire command station in new office buildings over 75 ft (about 23 m).[43]

Fire location, system status and hazardous materials inform access and suppression choices.
Responders need current information as well as physical access. Based on Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 53.

Access provisions have to stay usable for the whole life of the building. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines list the items whose design and maintenance support intervention: perimeter roads, the access paths and lifts used by the fire service, and equipment such as hydrants. The list also includes protective measures such as structural stability, sprinklers, smoke management and emergency communication.[49] The New Zealand version of the guidelines adds that alterations or a change of use can compromise the original fire engineering design and may call for a new evaluation.[50]

Limits and common misconceptions

Fire service access does not make the fire service part of the evacuation design. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines state that evacuation analysis should not rely on fire service intervention, although the needs of fire services must not be discounted.[9] In the Netherlands, an equivalent solution under the 2012 Building Decree cannot take credit for a fire service attack.[51] The fire service has an obligation of best efforts rather than of result, so its deployment cannot replace fire prevention measures.[52]

A positive engineering result does not oblige firefighters to attack from inside the building. Van Rossum stresses that this decision always rests with the fire service on site.[48] Likewise, the C/VM2 limits describe a single moment, and later operations are decided by the officer in charge according to the conditions found.[44]

Fire service intervention is also hard to quantify. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines note that its effect does not lend itself easily to calculation, so many aspects rest on qualitative judgement.[16] The FBIM values come from Australian data only.[19]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 53.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-10.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 66.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-7.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Van Rossum (2027), §1.2.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 32.
  7. ↑ Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 27.
  8. ↑ Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 29.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-1.
  10. ↑ Van Rossum (2027), §7.7.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-2.
  12. ↑ National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-4.
  13. ↑ National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-5.
  14. ↑ Meacham (2002), p. 5-164.
  15. ↑ Lerup et al. (1978), as cited in Bryan (2002), p. 3-315.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 2.9-2.
  17. ↑ National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), pp. 2.9-3–2.9-5.
  18. ↑ National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 2.9-4.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 3.9-2.
  20. ↑ Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 33.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Australian Building Codes Board (2022), p. 16.
  22. ↑ Australian Building Codes Board (2022), p. 15.
  23. ↑ Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 86.
  24. ↑ Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 11.
  25. ↑ Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 42.
  26. ↑ Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 39.
  27. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-26.
  28. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-25.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. F-61–F-62.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Hopkins et al. (2005), p. 21.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), pp. 54–55.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 55.
  33. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-2.
  34. ↑ Hopkins et al. (2005), p. xli.
  35. ↑ Hopkins et al. (2005), p. xliv.
  36. ↑ Klote (2002), p. 4-286.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Lawson and Vettori (2005), p. xliii.
  38. ↑ Lawson and Vettori (2005), p. xliv.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Lew et al. (2005), p. 191.
  40. ↑ Klote (2002), p. 4-289.
  41. ↑ National Institute of Standards and Technology (2005), p. 218.
  42. ↑ Hopkins et al. (2005), pp. xxxiv–xxxv.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Razza and Grill (2005c), p. 4.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 149.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 112.
  46. ↑ Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 113.
  47. ↑ Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 111.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Van Rossum (2027), §9.3 (Results from zone models).
  49. ↑ National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.9-8.
  50. ↑ National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), Part 0 (New Zealand), p. 0.3-8.
  51. ↑ Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 15.
  52. ↑ Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 41.

References

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