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'''Fire classes''' are letter categories that sort fires by the kind of material that is burning, such as ordinary combustibles, flammable liquids and gases, energised electrical equipment and reactive metals.<ref name="G153">Grant (2002), p. 4-153.</ref> A report of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG-1805, adds that the letter gives a general indication of the type and severity of the hazard.<ref name="ISB13">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-13.</ref> The classes are used to match a fire with a suitable [[Extinguishing agent]] and [[Fire extinguisher]]. Water, foam, dry chemical powders and gases work in different ways, and some of them make certain fires worse.<ref name="ISB15">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-15.</ref><ref name="ISB16">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-16.</ref>
'''Fire classes''' are letter categories that sort fires by the kind of material that is burning, such as ordinary combustibles, flammable liquids and gases, energised electrical equipment and reactive metals.<ref name="G153">Grant (2002), p. 4-153.</ref> A report of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG-1805, adds that the letter gives a general indication of the type and severity of the hazard.<ref name="ISB13">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-13.</ref> The classes are used to match a fire with a suitable [[Extinguishing agent]] and [[Fire extinguisher]]. Water, foam, dry chemical powders and gases work in different ways, and some of them make certain fires worse.<ref name="ISB15">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-15.</ref><ref name="ISB16">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-16.</ref>


Class letters are set by standards, and they are not the same in every document. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (third edition, 2002) shows four classes, A to D, taken from a 1991 handbook of the US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).<ref name="G171">Grant (2002), pp. 4-153 and 4-171.</ref> The 2002 edition of the US standard NFPA 10, as summarised in NUREG-1805, adds Class K for cooking oils and fats.<ref name="NFPA10">National Fire Protection Association (2002), as cited in Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-13.</ref> This article describes these US classes.
Class letters are set by standards, and they are not the same in every document. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (third edition, 2002) shows four classes, A to D, taken from a 1991 handbook of the US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).<ref name="G171">Grant (2002), pp. 4-153 and 4-171.</ref> The 2002 edition of the US standard NFPA 10, as summarised in NUREG-1805, adds Class K for cooking oils and fats.<ref name="NFPA10">National Fire Protection Association (2002), as cited in Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-13.</ref>


The wrong agent can increase the hazard. NUREG-1805 states that water should never be used on burning metals, that water under very hot cooking oil can throw out burning oil, and that water-based agents on live equipment can cause electric shock.<ref name="ISB16" /><ref name="ISB58">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-58.</ref><ref name="ISB60">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-60.</ref> Even an agent listed for the right class can fail on smouldering deep inside a solid or on a running liquid fire.<ref name="ISB43">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-43.</ref><ref name="SC88">Scheffey (2002), p. 4-88.</ref>
The wrong agent can increase the hazard. NUREG-1805 states that water should never be used on burning metals, that water under very hot cooking oil can throw out burning oil, and that water-based agents on live equipment can cause electric shock.<ref name="ISB16" /><ref name="ISB58">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-58.</ref><ref name="ISB60">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-60.</ref> Even an agent listed for the right class can fail on smouldering deep inside a solid or on a running liquid fire.<ref name="ISB43">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-43.</ref><ref name="SC88">Scheffey (2002), p. 4-88.</ref>
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To work on a Class D fire, an extinguisher must suppress the fire without reacting physically or chemically with the metal.<ref name="ISB16" /> NUREG-1805 lists special powders, each for particular metals, and notes that only argon and helium are acceptable inert gases for metals that react with nitrogen or carbon dioxide.<ref name="ISB31" /> Halons should not be used on metal fires. Grant notes that reactive metals burn so intensely that they overpower halon 1301.<ref name="ISB31" /><ref name="G152" />
To work on a Class D fire, an extinguisher must suppress the fire without reacting physically or chemically with the metal.<ref name="ISB16" /> NUREG-1805 lists special powders, each for particular metals, and notes that only argon and helium are acceptable inert gases for metals that react with nitrogen or carbon dioxide.<ref name="ISB31" /> Halons should not be used on metal fires. Grant notes that reactive metals burn so intensely that they overpower halon 1301.<ref name="ISB31" /><ref name="G152" />


Class K covers cooking appliances that use vegetable or animal oils and fats.<ref name="NFPA10" /> When burning oil is much hotter than the boiling point of water, water applied to it penetrates the oil and turns into steam below the surface. The resulting eruption of oil, a [[Boilover]], speeds up the burning and may spread the fire.<ref name="ISB58" /> Foam carries a similar risk, because on a liquid at 100 °C or above the steam can expand the foam fourfold and cause boilover.<ref name="ISB60" />
Class K covers cooking appliances that use vegetable or animal oils and fats.<ref name="NFPA10" /> When burning oil is much hotter than the boiling point of water, water applied to it penetrates the oil and turns into steam below the surface. The resulting eruption of oil, a Boilover, speeds up the burning and may spread the fire.<ref name="ISB58" /> Foam carries a similar risk, because on a liquid at 100 °C or above the steam can expand the foam fourfold and cause boilover.<ref name="ISB60" />


For this class NUREG-1805 lists dry chemical agents, carbon dioxide and wet chemical agents.<ref name="ISB16" /> A wet chemical agent is a solution of water with potassium carbonate, potassium acetate or potassium citrate. Wet chemical systems are used mainly for cooking range hoods, ducts and the associated appliances.<ref name="ISF70">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-70.</ref> Among the powders, monoammonium phosphate is not recommended for kitchen fires involving hot fat because it is acidic, and an alkaline powder such as potassium bicarbonate is preferred.<ref name="ISB56" />
For this class NUREG-1805 lists dry chemical agents, carbon dioxide and wet chemical agents.<ref name="ISB16" /> A wet chemical agent is a solution of water with potassium carbonate, potassium acetate or potassium citrate. Wet chemical systems are used mainly for cooking range hoods, ducts and the associated appliances.<ref name="ISF70">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-70.</ref> Among the powders, monoammonium phosphate is not recommended for kitchen fires involving hot fat because it is acidic, and an alkaline powder such as potassium bicarbonate is preferred.<ref name="ISB56" />

Latest revision as of 22:32, 2 November 2026

Fire classes are letter categories that sort fires by the kind of material that is burning, such as ordinary combustibles, flammable liquids and gases, energised electrical equipment and reactive metals.[1] A report of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG-1805, adds that the letter gives a general indication of the type and severity of the hazard.[2] The classes are used to match a fire with a suitable Extinguishing agent and Fire extinguisher. Water, foam, dry chemical powders and gases work in different ways, and some of them make certain fires worse.[3][4]

Class letters are set by standards, and they are not the same in every document. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (third edition, 2002) shows four classes, A to D, taken from a 1991 handbook of the US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).[5] The 2002 edition of the US standard NFPA 10, as summarised in NUREG-1805, adds Class K for cooking oils and fats.[6]

The wrong agent can increase the hazard. NUREG-1805 states that water should never be used on burning metals, that water under very hot cooking oil can throw out burning oil, and that water-based agents on live equipment can cause electric shock.[4][7][8] Even an agent listed for the right class can fail on smouldering deep inside a solid or on a running liquid fire.[9][10]

How fire classes are defined

Combustion is a set of mainly heat-releasing chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidiser, usually the oxygen in air, which produce heat and light as a flame or a glow.[11] Solids and liquids do not burn directly but only once they have turned into gas. A liquid first evaporates, as in a pool fire, while a solid first breaks down by Pyrolysis into smaller molecules that escape as gas and burn in the flames.[11] The class system groups fires according to the type of fuel and the possible spread of the fire.[2]

The Fire triangle names the three factors that combustion needs: fuel, oxygen and a high enough temperature.[12] Air contains about 21 percent oxygen by volume. When the oxygen level falls, a fire may stop spreading and eventually go out, depending on the exact concentration.[12] Typical extinguishing removes one side of the triangle by taking away the fuel, limiting the oxygen (smothering) or removing the heat (quenching).[13] Halons instead break up the chain reaction of the flame, so the triangle was extended into a "tetrahedron of fire" with the chain reaction as a fourth element.[13]

NUREG-1805 lists four ways to put out a fire: separating the fuel from the flame, removing or diluting the oxygen, cooling the fuel or the flame, and adding chemicals that change the combustion chemistry.[3] More often several of these act at once, and their relative importance changes with the circumstances.[3][4] Water on a burning solid cools the solid, so that it gives off less flammable gas, and cools the flame, so that less heat returns to the fuel. In a confined space the steam may also keep oxygen away, and a fine water fog may block radiant heat.[3] Dry chemical powder may interfere with the flame chemistry, coat the fuel surface, cool the flame and block radiation.[3]

Classes in United States documents

In the United States, NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers (2002 edition), as summarised in NUREG-1805, divides fires into five classes according to the fuel involved.[6] Class A covers ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics. Class B covers flammable or combustible liquids, petroleum greases, tars, oils, oil-based paints, solvents, lacquers, alcohols and flammable gases. Class C covers fires in energised electrical equipment, where it matters that the extinguishing agent does not conduct electricity. Class D covers combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium and potassium. Class K covers cooking appliances that use vegetable or animal oils and fats.[6]

Five US classes cover ordinary solids, liquids, energised equipment, metals and cooking media.
The five US fire classes of NFPA 10 (2002 edition), as summarised in NUREG-1805. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. B-13 and B-16.

Other US documents use fewer letters. The SFPE Handbook chapter on halon design calculations shows four classes of fire: ordinary combustibles (Class A), flammable liquids and gases (Class B), electrical equipment (Class C) and reactive metals (Class D).[1] This grouping, which the chapter takes from the seventeenth edition of the NFPA Fire Protection Handbook (1991), has no separate class for cooking oils and fats.[5] A class letter therefore only has a clear meaning together with the name and edition of the document that defines it.

NUREG-1805 also lists extinguishing agents for each class. It names water, dry chemicals, foam and some halon for Class A, and carbon dioxide, dry chemical agents, halon and foam for Class B.[4] For Class C it names carbon dioxide, dry chemical agents and halon, for Class D only dry chemical agents, and for Class K dry chemical agents, carbon dioxide and wet chemical agents.[4] The halon entries need care, because the same report calls halon obsolete for fire protection owing to its possible effect on the ozone layer.[14] Under the Montreal Protocol, the production of halons in the developed countries ended on 31 December 1993.[15]

Class A: ordinary combustibles

Class A fires burn ordinary solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics.[6] Water is the most commonly used extinguishing agent, mainly because it is widely available and inexpensive. It also absorbs a large amount of heat as it warms up and turns into steam.[16] Fleming gives 9280 Btu for one US gallon of water heated from a room temperature of 21 °C to steam at 100 °C, which is almost 2.6 MJ for every litre.[17]

Two kinds of burning can occur in Class A materials. In flaming combustion the hot fuel surface gives off gases that burn in the flame, while in Smouldering or glowing combustion the material reacts with oxygen at its surface or inside the fuel mass.[18] Smouldering cannot be put out as quickly as flaming, and it can continue for weeks in bales of cotton or in heaps of sawdust. It stops only when the oxygen or the fuel runs out or the fuel becomes too cool to react. It is usually extinguished by cooling with water or by covering the fuel with an inert gas.[18]

A deep-seated fire is smouldering below the surface that may continue for some time after the surface flames have been suppressed.[18] Halon 1301 at the normal concentration of 5 to 6 percent puts out the visible flames at once. Glowing combustion inside the material may continue, however, and re-ignite when the space is ventilated again.[9] Grant notes that complete extinguishment needs far higher concentrations of 18 to 30 percent, which are seldom economical.[1] NUREG-1805 states that the interior of the material must be investigated once the surface fire has been put out.[18]

Dry chemical powders show the same limit. All seven common types suppress flames, but only monoammonium phosphate, known as "ABC" or multipurpose powder, is considered effective against deep-seated fires. It forms a glassy coating over the burning surface.[19] The class can also hide differences between materials. Many plastics belong to Class A, yet Grant notes that most plastics behave like flammable liquids under halon 1301 and are put out rapidly at 4 to 6 percent. Cellulosic (plant-fibre) products, in contrast, can in certain forms develop deep-seated fires.[1]

Class B: flammable liquids and gases

Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids and flammable gases.[6] The NUREG-1805 table describes the class as flammable liquids, gases and liquid-derived solids, with examples such as gasoline (petrol), oils, liquefied petroleum gas, heavy lubricants and grease.[4] Water is a poor agent for many of these fires. It is denser than most hydrocarbon fuels and does not mix with them, so the burning fuel floats on top of the water, keeps burning and may spread.[16]

Firefighting foam consists of air-filled bubbles made from a solution of foam concentrate in water, typically at 1, 3 or 6 percent concentrate.[10] The foam is lighter than the fuel and floats on it. It forms an air-excluding layer that stops the fuel from evaporating at its surface, and when the whole surface is covered the fire goes out.[10] Film-forming foams can also spread a vapour-sealing film of water solution over most hydrocarbon fuels.[10] Foam breaks down under heat and flames, so it must be applied at a sufficient rate and in sufficient volume to keep a layer over the fuel.[20]

Liquids that mix with water, such as alcohols, need a different approach. Enough water can dilute them until they no longer burn, but for a deep pool of alcohol this can take so long that a foam is the better choice.[7] Foams for alcohol fires must be alcohol resistant. Their concentrates form a floating polymer skin that protects the foam from breakdown by polar solvents such as acetone, methanol and ethanol.[20][21]

The shape of a liquid fire matters as much as the fuel. Low-expansion foams have at most ten times the volume of the solution they are made from. They work well on flat pool fires but are not particularly effective on three-dimensional fires, such as running fuel or a pressurised spray.[10] This is particularly true when the fuel has a low flash point, and for such fires an auxiliary agent such as dry chemical powder is typically used with the foam.[10] Dry chemical agents are themselves used most often on relatively small flammable liquid fires.[22] Halon 1301 works well on liquid fires inside a closed space, but on a large outdoor running pool fire it dissipates without reaching the flames.[1]

Foam blankets a pool, while running fuel and a pressurised spray lack a continuous cover.
Liquid-fire geometry affects the usefulness of a foam blanket. Based on Scheffey (2002), p. 4-88 and Fleming (2002), p. 4-72.

Class C: energised electrical equipment

Class C differs from the other classes because it does not add a new fuel. NUREG-1805 describes it as the same fuels as Class A and B fires together with energised electrical equipment, such as household appliances.[4] The class exists because the agent must not conduct electricity, and extinguishers for Class C fires are rated by the non-conductive properties of their agent.[6][4] Once the equipment has been de-energised, extinguishers designed for Class A or Class B fires can be used safely.[6]

Water and water-based agents, including foam, carry a risk of electric shock when they reach live equipment.[8] Carbon dioxide is an electrically non-conductive gas that is suitable for Class B and Class C fires. It puts out a fire by lowering the concentration of oxygen, of fuel vapour or of both until combustion stops.[23] Halon 1301 is particularly suited to Class B and Class C fires, and electrical and electronic equipment is typically protected with a concentration of 5 percent.[1] Dry chemical powder is safe on electrical fires from the point of view of electric shock. The powders can, however, damage delicate electrical equipment, especially monoammonium phosphate, which is notably acidic and corrodes more readily than the others.[22]

NUREG-1805 reviews US nuclear power plant fires in which crews avoided water on live equipment. At Waterford 3 in 1995, a switchgear fire was attacked with portable carbon dioxide, halon and dry chemical extinguishers without success. Water was only permitted about 90 minutes after the fire started, and firefighters then brought the fire under control within 4 minutes.[24] The report notes that the fire was allowed to burn far longer, and the damage was perhaps made worse, than with prompt and effective suppression.[25]

At Prairie Island 1 in 2001, a first attempt to de-energise a burning breaker failed, as arcing showed, and the decision not to use water on the live equipment complicated the attack.[26] The fire took about 1.5 hours and more than 20 portable carbon dioxide extinguishers to put out. The report concludes that operating experience with fires in energised electrical equipment shows a relatively small quantity of water to have been effective.[26]

Classes D and K: metals and cooking oils

Class D covers fires in combustible metals or in metal alloys with combustible metal components.[4] Metals such as magnesium, titanium, sodium, potassium, lithium and zirconium ignite easily as thin sections, fine particles or molten metal. As a solid block, however, they are comparatively hard to ignite.[27] Even aluminium, iron and steel can burn when finely divided, and clean fine steel wool may ignite. Burning metals can be hotter than burning flammable liquids, and some keep burning in carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water or steam.[27]

Water is not usually recommended, because several metals react with water to release hydrogen, which burns rapidly. Water entering molten metal can also cause violent steam explosions.[28] The class table in NUREG-1805 states that water and water-based extinguishers should never be used on Class D fires.[4] Its text nevertheless reports that large quantities of water have put out small quantities of burning magnesium when no pools of molten metal were present.[28] Fleming likewise notes that enough water can overcome the reaction of minor amounts of water-reactive materials.[16]

To work on a Class D fire, an extinguisher must suppress the fire without reacting physically or chemically with the metal.[4] NUREG-1805 lists special powders, each for particular metals, and notes that only argon and helium are acceptable inert gases for metals that react with nitrogen or carbon dioxide.[28] Halons should not be used on metal fires. Grant notes that reactive metals burn so intensely that they overpower halon 1301.[28][13]

Class K covers cooking appliances that use vegetable or animal oils and fats.[6] When burning oil is much hotter than the boiling point of water, water applied to it penetrates the oil and turns into steam below the surface. The resulting eruption of oil, a Boilover, speeds up the burning and may spread the fire.[7] Foam carries a similar risk, because on a liquid at 100 °C or above the steam can expand the foam fourfold and cause boilover.[8]

For this class NUREG-1805 lists dry chemical agents, carbon dioxide and wet chemical agents.[4] A wet chemical agent is a solution of water with potassium carbonate, potassium acetate or potassium citrate. Wet chemical systems are used mainly for cooking range hoods, ducts and the associated appliances.[29] Among the powders, monoammonium phosphate is not recommended for kitchen fires involving hot fat because it is acidic, and an alkaline powder such as potassium bicarbonate is preferred.[22]

How the classes are used

In the United States, the class letters appear in the rating marked on an extinguisher. NUREG-1805 describes the NFPA 10 rating as a number, such as 5, 20 or 70, that shows relative effectiveness. The number is followed by one or more letters for the classes of fire on which the extinguisher was found to be effective.[30] The rating is based on standardised tests developed by Underwriters Laboratories.[31] One extinguisher can carry ratings for more than one class. Hand-portable extinguishers holding 9 litres of aqueous film-forming foam are rated 3A:20B, and wheeled units holding 125 litres are rated 20A:160B.[32]

The classes are also linked to standard test fires. Extinguishing concentrations of gaseous agents for Class A fuels were traditionally developed with burning wood cribs, and tests with sheets of plastics have more recently been required as well.[33] For Class B, the US foam test standard UL 162 burns commercial n-heptane in a square pan of at least 4.6 m².[34]

The letters can describe the hazard of a whole space. Citing NFPA 10 and a handbook chapter on extinguisher use, NUREG-1805 describes light hazard occupancies such as offices and classrooms. These hold only a minor quantity of Class A materials and small amounts of Class B liquids in closed containers.[35] Ordinary hazard occupancies, such as dining areas, shops and parking garages, hold larger amounts of Class A and B materials. Extra hazard occupancies, such as woodworking, vehicle repair and cooking areas, hold more than that.[35]

Limits and common misconceptions

A class letter describes the fuel, not the whole fire. One fire can involve several classes at once, as Class C itself shows by combining ordinary and liquid fuels with live equipment.[4] The same class can also cover very different fires, such as a flat pool and a pressurised spray of the same liquid, or burning plastic and a smouldering bale of cotton.[10][1][18] The choice of agent therefore depends on the form of the fuel and on the hazards of the agent itself, not only on the letter.

Class and fuel form lead to compatibility, delivery, persistence and secondary-effect checks.
Class selection is only the first step in choosing an extinguishing agent. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. B-15–B-16 and Scheffey (2002), p. 4-88.

Putting out the flames does not mean that the fire is out. Deep-seated fires can re-ignite when air returns, and NUREG-1805 names unexpected re-ignition as a hazard of dry chemical agents.[9][36] At the Point Beach 1 nuclear power plant in 2001, the fire brigade discharged about 32 kg (70 pounds) of dry chemical from three portable extinguishers on a small fire of rags and debris. The fire re-ignited twice and was finally put out with about 57 to 76 litres (15 to 20 gallons) of water. The powder covered large areas of the containment building in white dust.[37]

The class lists in NFPA 10 (2002 edition) and in the SFPE Handbook do not mention batteries.[6][1] A Lithium-ion battery fire can involve Thermal runaway, a failure in which a battery cell heats itself and can release flammable gases. The fire then keeps itself going and re-ignites until the energy of the battery pack has been used up.[38] In an electric vehicle the battery pack is sealed, so cooling water cannot reach the cells directly, and a Dutch report describes prolonged cooling with large amounts of water.[38] The same report states that a burning battery pack of an electric vehicle is very difficult or impossible to extinguish, and that water has to reach the inside of the pack.[39]

The word "class" is also used in unrelated systems, which can cause confusion. NUREG-1805 groups t-squared fires into slow, medium, fast and ultra-fast growth classes.[40] Following NFPA 30, it classifies flammable liquids as Class IA, IB and IC by flash point, and following NFPA 256 it rates roof coverings as Class A, B or C by flame spread.[40] None of these is a fire class in the sense used for choosing an extinguishing agent.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Grant (2002), p. 4-153.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-13.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-15.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-16.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Grant (2002), pp. 4-153 and 4-171.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 National Fire Protection Association (2002), as cited in Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-13.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-58.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-60.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-43.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Scheffey (2002), p. 4-88.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Van Rossum (2027), §4.1.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Van Rossum (2027), §4.2.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Grant (2002), pp. 4-152–4-153.
  14. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-35.
  15. ↑ DiNenno (2002), p. 4-173.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Fleming (2002), p. 4-72.
  17. ↑ Fleming (2002), p. 4-72 (9280 Btu per US gallon, converted to SI).
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-39.
  19. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. B-55–B-56.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-59.
  21. ↑ Scheffey (2002), p. 4-89.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-56.
  23. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-12.
  24. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. H-21.
  25. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. H-23.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. H-30–H-31.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-29.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-31.
  29. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-70.
  30. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-25.
  31. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-23.
  32. ↑ Scheffey and Hickey (2002), p. 4-126.
  33. ↑ DiNenno (2002), p. 4-177.
  34. ↑ Scheffey (2002), p. 4-95.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Conroy (1997) and National Fire Protection Association (2002), as cited in Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-14.
  36. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-57.
  37. ↑ Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. H-29–H-30.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 22.
  39. ↑ Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 30.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Iqbal and Salley (2004), pp. B-3, B-17 and C-11.

References

  • DiNenno, P. J. (2002). Halon replacement clean agent total flooding systems. In P. J. DiNenno, D. Drysdale, C. L. Beyler, W. D. Walton, R. L. P. Custer, J. R. Hall Jr., & J. M. Watts Jr. (Eds.), SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering (3rd ed., pp. 4-173–4-200). National Fire Protection Association; Society of Fire Protection Engineers.
  • Fleming, R. P. (2002). Automatic sprinkler system calculations. In P. J. DiNenno, D. Drysdale, C. L. Beyler, W. D. Walton, R. L. P. Custer, J. R. Hall Jr., & J. M. Watts Jr. (Eds.), SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering (3rd ed., pp. 4-72–4-87). National Fire Protection Association; Society of Fire Protection Engineers.
  • Grant, C. C. (2002). Halon design calculations. In P. J. DiNenno, D. Drysdale, C. L. Beyler, W. D. Walton, R. L. P. Custer, J. R. Hall Jr., & J. M. Watts Jr. (Eds.), SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering (3rd ed., pp. 4-149–4-172). National Fire Protection Association; Society of Fire Protection Engineers.
  • Iqbal, N., & Salley, M. H. (2004). Fire Dynamics Tools (FDTs): Quantitative fire hazard analysis methods for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Fire Protection Inspection Program (NUREG-1805). U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation.
  • Scheffey, J. L. (2002). Foam agents and AFFF system design considerations. In P. J. DiNenno, D. Drysdale, C. L. Beyler, W. D. Walton, R. L. P. Custer, J. R. Hall Jr., & J. M. Watts Jr. (Eds.), SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering (3rd ed., pp. 4-88–4-122). National Fire Protection Association; Society of Fire Protection Engineers.
  • Scheffey, J. L., & Hickey, H. E. (2002). Foam system calculations. In P. J. DiNenno, D. Drysdale, C. L. Beyler, W. D. Walton, R. L. P. Custer, J. R. Hall Jr., & J. M. Watts Jr. (Eds.), SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering (3rd ed., pp. 4-123–4-148). National Fire Protection Association; Society of Fire Protection Engineers.
  • Van der Graaf, J., Hessels, T., & Rosmuller, N. (2023). Fire safety of indoor car parks accommodating electrically powered vehicles. Nederlands Instituut Publieke Veiligheid. (Original work published 2021)
  • Van Rossum, E. (2027). Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering. Fire Safety Academy.
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