Carbon dioxide - Revision history

Thomas: Improve Carbon dioxide: sourced explanations, calculations and internal links (Codex)

2026-11-02T17:58:30Z

Improve Carbon dioxide: sourced explanations, calculations and internal links (Codex)

Sanne: Add diagrams fse-carbon-dioxide-v1.svg, fse-carbon-dioxide-v2.svg, fse-carbon-dioxide-v3.svg (level-1 visual plan)

2026-11-02T07:18:23Z

Add diagrams fse-carbon-dioxide-v1.svg, fse-carbon-dioxide-v2.svg, fse-carbon-dioxide-v3.svg (level-1 visual plan)

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:18, 2 November 2026
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	Well-ventilated conditions favour more complete oxidation and higher carbon dioxide yield relative to carbon monoxide. Fuel-rich conditions reduce complete oxidation and increase carbon monoxide and other products. External burning can later oxidise these products to carbon dioxide after they leave the compartment.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55">Gottuk and Lattimer (2002), p. 2-55.</ref><ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54">Gottuk and Lattimer (2002), p. 2-54.</ref>		Well-ventilated conditions favour more complete oxidation and higher carbon dioxide yield relative to carbon monoxide. Fuel-rich conditions reduce complete oxidation and increase carbon monoxide and other products. External burning can later oxidise these products to carbon dioxide after they leave the compartment.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55">Gottuk and Lattimer (2002), p. 2-55.</ref><ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54">Gottuk and Lattimer (2002), p. 2-54.</ref>
			[[File:fse-carbon-dioxide-v1.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Complete oxidation to CO₂ and water versus incomplete pathways to CO, soot and other products.\|Complete and incomplete combustion products. Based on Drysdale (2002), pp. 1-92–1-95.]]

	Smouldering also produces carbon dioxide alongside carbon monoxide through direct surface oxidation of char and other condensed fuel. The ratio between them varies with material and airflow. Carbon dioxide production is therefore not limited to flaming combustion.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-200">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-200.</ref><ref name="Ohlemiller-2-202">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-202.</ref>		Smouldering also produces carbon dioxide alongside carbon monoxide through direct surface oxidation of char and other condensed fuel. The ratio between them varies with material and airflow. Carbon dioxide production is therefore not limited to flaming combustion.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-200">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-200.</ref><ref name="Ohlemiller-2-202">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-202.</ref>
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	Carbon dioxide stimulates ventilation, increasing breathing rate and volume. This can increase the uptake of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and lung irritants. The gas therefore affects both the person directly and the dose received from other smoke components.<ref name="Purser-2-109">Purser (2002), p. 2-109.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions">Purser (2002), pp. 2-109–2-110.</ref>		Carbon dioxide stimulates ventilation, increasing breathing rate and volume. This can increase the uptake of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and lung irritants. The gas therefore affects both the person directly and the dose received from other smoke components.<ref name="Purser-2-109">Purser (2002), p. 2-109.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions">Purser (2002), pp. 2-109–2-110.</ref>
			[[File:fse-carbon-dioxide-v2.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=CO₂ increases breathing while CO, HCN, irritants and low oxygen enter the same person.\|CO₂ affects breathing and the uptake of other smoke products. Based on Purser (2002), pp. 2-108–2-110.]]

	[[Oxygen depletion]] adds a separate hypoxic pathway. Carbon dioxide can dominate the gas mixture while oxygen availability falls, and the combined atmosphere can be more hazardous than either property alone. Assessing only carbon dioxide concentration without oxygen would miss this interaction.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />		[[Oxygen depletion]] adds a separate hypoxic pathway. Carbon dioxide can dominate the gas mixture while oxygen availability falls, and the combined atmosphere can be more hazardous than either property alone. Assessing only carbon dioxide concentration without oxygen would miss this interaction.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />
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	Purser's worked example uses 5% carbon dioxide for 20 minutes followed by 9% for 2 minutes and predicts severe incapacitation at approximately 22 minutes. This is an application of the model, not a general exposure limit. It illustrates why different concentration segments must be evaluated separately.<ref name="Purser-2-109" />		Purser's worked example uses 5% carbon dioxide for 20 minutes followed by 9% for 2 minutes and predicts severe incapacitation at approximately 22 minutes. This is an application of the model, not a general exposure limit. It illustrates why different concentration segments must be evaluated separately.<ref name="Purser-2-109" />
			[[File:fse-carbon-dioxide-v3.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Five percent CO₂ for 20 minutes then 9 percent for 2 minutes gives FED 1.01.\|Worked carbon-dioxide exposure example with FED 1.01. Based on Purser (2002), p. 2-109.]]

	An FED assessment can combine carbon dioxide with carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and low oxygen. Additive and interaction assumptions influence the result, and vulnerable populations may need additional margin. A single total gas concentration does not capture these physiological differences.<ref name="Purser-2-111">Purser (2002), pp. 2-111–2-112.</ref>		An FED assessment can combine carbon dioxide with carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and low oxygen. Additive and interaction assumptions influence the result, and vulnerable populations may need additional margin. A single total gas concentration does not capture these physiological differences.<ref name="Purser-2-111">Purser (2002), pp. 2-111–2-112.</ref>

Jan: New FSE wiki article: Carbon dioxide (written by Kimi Code CLI)

2026-11-01T23:54:44Z

New FSE wiki article: Carbon dioxide (written by Kimi Code CLI)

New page

'''Carbon dioxide''' is a gas produced by complete oxidation of carbon-containing fuel and is a normal product of combustion. In fire atmospheres it contributes to gas expansion, heat capacity and radiation, while elevated concentrations can stimulate breathing and cause asphyxiation. Its significance therefore extends beyond being a passive end product.<ref name="Drysdale-1-92">Drysdale (2002), p. 1-92.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-108">Purser (2002), pp. 2-108–2-109.</ref>

Complete [[Combustion]] converts fuel carbon to carbon dioxide and hydrogen to water, subject to the actual reaction and combustion efficiency. Incomplete combustion instead produces carbon monoxide, soot and other partially oxidised species. The relative yields depend on fuel, oxygen supply, mixing and temperature.<ref name="Drysdale-1-92" /><ref name="Drysdale-1-95">Drysdale (2002), p. 1-95.</ref>

Carbon dioxide is also used as an extinguishing agent in some [[Gaseous extinguishing system]] designs, where it restricts oxygen available to the fire. The same property that suppresses combustion can make the atmosphere hazardous to people at sufficient concentration. Application therefore requires distinct fire-suppression and occupancy assessments.<ref name="Grant-4-152">Grant (2002), p. 4-152.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-108" />

== Formation and fire chemistry ==

A balanced complete-combustion reaction specifies carbon dioxide and water among the stable products. Drysdale uses propane to show both the product quantities and the oxygen required for complete oxidation. The nitrogen in air accompanies these reactions and affects the gas mixture that must be heated.<ref name="Drysdale-1-92" />

The amount of carbon dioxide produced per unit fuel depends on fuel composition and the reaction pathway. Complete conversion is an ideal reference, while natural fires always include some partially oxidised products. Actual carbon dioxide yield therefore changes with material and combustion conditions.<ref name="Drysdale-1-95" /><ref name="Purser-2-96">Purser (2002), p. 2-96.</ref>

Well-ventilated conditions favour more complete oxidation and higher carbon dioxide yield relative to carbon monoxide. Fuel-rich conditions reduce complete oxidation and increase carbon monoxide and other products. External burning can later oxidise these products to carbon dioxide after they leave the compartment.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55">Gottuk and Lattimer (2002), p. 2-55.</ref><ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54">Gottuk and Lattimer (2002), p. 2-54.</ref>

Smouldering also produces carbon dioxide alongside carbon monoxide through direct surface oxidation of char and other condensed fuel. The ratio between them varies with material and airflow. Carbon dioxide production is therefore not limited to flaming combustion.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-200">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-200.</ref><ref name="Ohlemiller-2-202">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-202.</ref>

== Physical role in fire atmospheres ==

Carbon dioxide contributes to the amount and heat capacity of combustion products. Energy released by combustion heats carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen and other gases, so their thermal capacities influence flame and smoke temperatures. Drysdale lists carbon dioxide heat capacity at constant pressure as 37.129 J/mol·K at 298 K and 54.308 J/mol·K at 1000 K.<ref name="Drysdale-1-92" />

At high temperatures, carbon dioxide can dissociate as part of chemical-equilibrium changes. These heat-absorbing processes help make actual flame temperatures lower than simple adiabatic estimates. The gas is therefore chemically as well as thermally relevant to fire calculations.<ref name="Drysdale-1-96">Drysdale (2002), p. 1-96.</ref>

Carbon dioxide also absorbs and emits thermal radiation in parts of the infrared spectrum. Tien and colleagues identify water vapour and carbon dioxide as important participating gases in the 1 to 100 micrometre range. This can affect radiative exchange between flames, smoke layers, boundaries and receiving objects.<ref name="Tien-1-73">Tien, Lee, and Stretton (2002), p. 1-73.</ref>

Gas expansion during heating adds to pressure-driven movement through openings. Carbon dioxide forms part of this expanding mixture, although the resulting flow depends on the total gas amount, temperature and enclosure. It should not be treated as an independent driver isolated from other combustion products.<ref name="VR-3.2">Van Rossum (2027), §3.2.</ref><ref name="VR-6.6">Van Rossum (2027), §6.6.</ref>

== Physiological effects ==

Elevated carbon dioxide causes hypercapnia, an increased concentration in the body that alters breathing and can lead to incapacitation. Purser describes gradually increasing effects from about 3% to 6%, with more severe consequences above 7% and a growing risk of unconsciousness from 7% to 10%. These are approximate source-specific exposure relationships.<ref name="Purser-2-108" />

Purser also reports likely loss of consciousness within two minutes at 10% carbon dioxide in humans. This value must not be converted into a universal threshold for every exposure, but it demonstrates the severity of short high-concentration exposure. Concentration and duration still need to be assessed together.<ref name="Purser-2-108" />

Carbon dioxide stimulates ventilation, increasing breathing rate and volume. This can increase the uptake of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and lung irritants. The gas therefore affects both the person directly and the dose received from other smoke components.<ref name="Purser-2-109">Purser (2002), p. 2-109.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions">Purser (2002), pp. 2-109–2-110.</ref>

[[Oxygen depletion]] adds a separate hypoxic pathway. Carbon dioxide can dominate the gas mixture while oxygen availability falls, and the combined atmosphere can be more hazardous than either property alone. Assessing only carbon dioxide concentration without oxygen would miss this interaction.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

== Concentration, time and FED ==

Carbon dioxide does not follow Haber's simple constant-concentration-times-time rule. Purser contrasts approximate Ct products of 20%·min at 10% carbon dioxide and 175%·min at 5%, showing that concentration strongly affects time to incapacitation. A long low exposure and a short high exposure cannot be interchanged using one constant.<ref name="Purser-2-108" />

[[Fractional effective dose (FED)]] for carbon dioxide therefore uses a concentration-dependent incapacitation relationship. Fractional doses are accumulated through time until the selected model predicts incapacitation. The method requires a stable or increasing concentration history, or another appropriate treatment of changing conditions.<ref name="Purser-2-108" /><ref name="Purser-2-109" />

Purser's worked example uses 5% carbon dioxide for 20 minutes followed by 9% for 2 minutes and predicts severe incapacitation at approximately 22 minutes. This is an application of the model, not a general exposure limit. It illustrates why different concentration segments must be evaluated separately.<ref name="Purser-2-109" />

An FED assessment can combine carbon dioxide with carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and low oxygen. Additive and interaction assumptions influence the result, and vulnerable populations may need additional margin. A single total gas concentration does not capture these physiological differences.<ref name="Purser-2-111">Purser (2002), pp. 2-111–2-112.</ref>

The timing of carbon dioxide exposure matters because fire growth changes both concentration and breathing demand. A person can initially inhale a dilute mixture and later encounter a much richer layer, while activity increases ventilation. Evaluating those periods separately is more defensible than averaging them into one exposure.<ref name="Purser-2-109" /><ref name="Purser-2-97">Purser (2002), pp. 2-96–2-97.</ref>

Different exposure metrics should remain attached to their purpose. Yield describes production, concentration describes the atmosphere at one place, and FED describes a modelled physiological outcome. Converting between them requires transport, breathing and dose-effect assumptions rather than a simple unit change.<ref name="Purser-2-88" /><ref name="Purser-2-108" />

Carbon dioxide measurements should also be interpreted with the oxygen measurement. Elevated carbon dioxide and low oxygen can occur together in a developed fire, and their physiological effects differ. Reporting only one concentration can make the atmosphere appear better characterised than it is.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

For fire-suppression analysis, the relevant questions include initial concentration, retention time and leakage. A nominal agent quantity can fail to maintain the required atmosphere when openings and bypass flows continue. These same processes also influence the exposure of anyone remaining in or entering the protected space.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-206" /><ref name="Ohlemiller-2-207" />

Model review should test the effect of external oxidation. Fuel-rich gases can leave the source room and produce carbon dioxide outside, changing both the source-room measurement and the external hazard. Assigning all of that carbon dioxide to the original compartment would give an inconsistent mass balance.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55" /><ref name="Drysdale-1-95" />

A traceable report therefore identifies the combustion mode, source yield, transport path, receiver concentration and exposure duration. It also distinguishes suppression performance from human tenability. These details allow carbon dioxide to be assessed as a combustion product, radiant gas, asphyxiant and extinguishing agent without confusing their different criteria.<ref name="Purser-2-108" /><ref name="Grant-4-152" />

[[Fire toxicity]] includes both asphyxiant and irritant effects. Carbon dioxide contributes primarily as an asphyxiant and breathing stimulant, while other products can injure airways, impair oxygen transport or prevent oxygen use in tissues. The combined mixture determines the exposed person's response.<ref name="Purser-2-85">Purser (2002), pp. 2-85–2-86.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen carriage, while hydrogen cyanide reduces the ability of tissues to use delivered oxygen. Carbon dioxide can increase the uptake of both and adds its own acidotic and asphyxiant effects. A hazard model based on one gas at a time can therefore underestimate the combined condition.<ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

The complete exposure also includes heat and irritant smoke. These can impair vision and breathing and increase the time needed to escape. Longer exposure in a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere then increases the accumulated dose.<ref name="Purser-2-85" /><ref name="Purser-2-86">Purser (2002), p. 2-86.</ref>

Post-exposure effects matter as well. Purser describes evidence that carbon dioxide can enhance acidosis and lung injury after severe exposures in rodents. Such findings reinforce that removal from the atmosphere does not necessarily end physiological effects.<ref name="Purser-2-109" />

== Use in fire suppression ==

Carbon dioxide can suppress fire by reducing oxygen available to the reaction zone. This is one of the traditional smothering mechanisms, distinct from cooling, fuel removal and chemical inhibition. Effective application requires the gas to reach and remain around the relevant fire region.<ref name="Grant-4-152" />

Deep-seated and porous fires require particular attention. In small-scale grain-silo tests described by Ohlemiller, carbon dioxide fed from the bottom was the most effective of the agents examined. That result belongs to the tested configuration and does not prove effectiveness for every enclosure or fire.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-207">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-207.</ref>

Hot fuel can reignite when oxygen returns before cooling is complete. Smothering therefore has to be maintained long enough to prevent renewed reaction, and concealed regions must actually receive the agent. Bypass channels can leave smouldering zones untreated.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-206">Ohlemiller (2002), p. 2-206.</ref><ref name="Ohlemiller-2-207" />

Occupancy hazards remain even when suppression is successful. Elevated carbon dioxide can stimulate breathing and cause incapacitation, while oxygen depletion adds further risk. System evaluation must therefore distinguish the concentration required for suppression from conditions tolerable to people.<ref name="Purser-2-108" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

== Measurement and modelling ==

A carbon dioxide yield gives the mass produced per unit fuel consumed and depends on combustion mode. Well-ventilated and vitiated test conditions can produce different yields, so the intended fire stage must be represented. Generic complete-combustion values are not a substitute for those data.<ref name="Purser-2-96" />

Source yield is not the same as concentration at a receiver. Plume entrainment, vent flow, mixing and external oxidation change the atmosphere during transport. A model must connect the source with the exposed location and the exposure duration.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54" /><ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55" />

Gas measurements also need appropriate units. Volume fraction, molar fraction and mass concentration require consistent treatment with the gas mixture and model. Ct products in Purser's examples use percentages by volume and time, which should not be confused with mass-based yields.<ref name="Purser-2-88">Purser (2002), p. 2-88.</ref><ref name="Purser-2-108" />

Radiation and temperature models need corresponding gas properties. Heat capacity and emissivity vary with temperature and wavelength, and simplified constant values apply only to their stated range. Source data should not be extrapolated silently to unrelated conditions.<ref name="Drysdale-1-92" /><ref name="Tien-1-73" />

== Prevention and engineering use ==

Limiting ignition and fire growth reduces the total carbon dioxide produced along with other effluent. Smoke-control measures can then remove, dilute or contain the contaminated atmosphere. The resulting concentration and exposure duration at occupied locations must be evaluated.<ref name="IFEG-2.5-7">Australian Building Codes Board et al. (2005), p. 2.5-7.</ref><ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-54" />

Ventilation can support more complete combustion and reduce carbon monoxide while increasing carbon dioxide production and total fire growth. This illustrates why a lower carbon monoxide hazard does not automatically make the overall atmosphere safe. Fire development and gas composition must be considered together.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55" /><ref name="Purser-2-108" />

For suppression design, agent distribution and retention are as important as the nominal quantity. Openings and bypass paths can change concentration over time and allow reignition. The model should include these dynamics rather than assuming a single uniform fill.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-206" /><ref name="Ohlemiller-2-207" />

For occupied-space assessment, alarm and escape timing can limit the accumulated dose. Incapacitation can occur before death and prevent escape, so the selected criterion must address more than lethality. The FED model and exposure duration should reflect the people and activity involved.<ref name="Purser-2-85" /><ref name="Purser-2-111">Purser (2002), pp. 2-111–2-112.</ref>

== Limits and common misunderstandings ==

Carbon dioxide is not harmless simply because it is a normal combustion product. High concentrations can cause rapid incapacitation, and moderate concentrations can increase uptake of other toxic products. Exposure conditions determine the hazard.<ref name="Purser-2-108" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

It is also not a direct measure of complete fire efficiency. Carbon dioxide forms in complete and incomplete combustion, and external oxidation can create it away from the original flame. Its presence alone does not establish that all fuel burned completely.<ref name="Drysdale-1-95" /><ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55" />

The gas is not merely an inert diluent in every fire model. It absorbs and emits radiation, affects heat capacity and stimulates breathing. These physical and physiological effects can be important alongside its quantity.<ref name="Tien-1-73" /><ref name="Drysdale-1-92" /><ref name="Purser-2-109" />

Finally, suppression with carbon dioxide does not guarantee permanent extinction or occupant safety. Reignition can follow oxygen readmission, and the resulting atmosphere can be dangerous. Both outcomes require separate evaluation.<ref name="Ohlemiller-2-206" /><ref name="Purser-2-108" />

The term should finally be used with its chemical formula and role made clear. Carbon dioxide in a complete-combustion equation, a smoke layer or an extinguishing cylinder has the same identity, but the assessment criteria differ. Source production, atmospheric exposure and suppression performance should not be treated as one quantity.<ref name="Drysdale-1-92" /><ref name="Purser-2-108" /><ref name="Grant-4-152" />

This separation also helps prevent false reassurance. More complete oxidation can reduce carbon monoxide while producing carbon dioxide and heat, and successful smothering can create an atmosphere unsuitable for people. Each outcome needs its own evidence and acceptance conditions.<ref name="Gottuk-Lattimer-2-55" /><ref name="Purser-2-109-interactions" />

== See also ==

* [[Gaseous extinguishing system]]
* [[Oxygen depletion]]
* [[Combustion]]

== Notes ==

<references />

== References ==

* Australian Building Codes Board, National Research Council of Canada, International Code Council, & Department of Building and Housing New Zealand. (2005). ''International fire engineering guidelines'' (2005 ed.). Australian Building Codes Board.
* Drysdale, D. D. (2002). Thermochemistry. In P. J. DiNenno (Ed.), ''SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering'' (3rd ed.). National Fire Protection Association.
* Gottuk, D. T., & Lattimer, B. Y. (2002). Effect of combustion conditions on species production. In P. J. DiNenno (Ed.), ''SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering'' (3rd ed.). National Fire Protection Association.
* Grant, C. C. (2002). Halon design calculations. In P. J. DiNenno (Ed.), ''SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering'' (3rd ed.). National Fire Protection Association.
* Ohlemiller, T. J. (2002). Smoldering combustion. In P. J. DiNenno (Ed.), ''SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering'' (3rd ed.). National Fire Protection Association.
* Purser, D. A. (2002). Toxicity assessment of combustion products. In P. J. DiNenno (Ed.), ''SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering'' (3rd ed.). National Fire Protection Association.
* Tien, C. L., Lee, K. Y., & Stretton, A. J. (2002). Radiation heat transfer. In P. J. DiNenno (Ed.), ''SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering'' (3rd ed.). National Fire Protection Association.
* Van Rossum, E. (2027). ''Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering''. Fire Safety Academy.

[[Category:Smoke, Toxicity & Tenability]]