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Upward flame spread

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	In a [[Facade fire\|facade fire]], vertical travel of flames does not necessarily mean that the cladding itself is sustaining upward surface spread. The New Zealand commentary distinguishes spread over facade materials from fire plumes projecting through openings and exposing openings above. Identifying which mechanism is active is necessary before selecting a surface-spread model.<ref name="NZ-134">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 134.</ref>		In a [[Facade fire\|facade fire]], vertical travel of flames does not necessarily mean that the cladding itself is sustaining upward surface spread. The New Zealand commentary distinguishes spread over facade materials from fire plumes projecting through openings and exposing openings above. Identifying which mechanism is active is necessary before selecting a surface-spread model.<ref name="NZ-134">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 134.</ref>

	The external-wall assembly can also behave differently from a small isolated material specimen. The commentary identifies connections and jointing details as reasons why small-scale testing may be unsuitable. A ~~[[Large-scale facade fire test\|~~large-scale facade fire test]] can address the behaviour of an arrangement whose relevant details are not represented by the material specimen alone. The cited commentary supports this distinction without defining one universal facade test procedure.<ref name="NZ-135-136">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), pp. 135–136.</ref>		The external-wall assembly can also behave differently from a small isolated material specimen. The commentary identifies connections and jointing details as reasons why small-scale testing may be unsuitable. A large-scale facade fire test can address the behaviour of an arrangement whose relevant details are not represented by the material specimen alone. The cited commentary supports this distinction without defining one universal facade test procedure.<ref name="NZ-135-136">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), pp. 135–136.</ref>

	== Interpreting tests and model results ==		== Interpreting tests and model results ==

Warehouse fire

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	Classifying the occupancy and the stored commodity is the most critical step in sprinkler design. If the hazard is underestimated, the fire can overpower the sprinklers.<ref name="Fle-73" /> This step is described under [[sprinkler hazard classification]]. Sprinkler design for fire suppression is largely empirical. The criteria for rack storage and for large-drop and early suppression sprinklers are based on full-scale tests, while most other criteria rest on experience and judgement.<ref name="Fle-73" />		Classifying the occupancy and the stored commodity is the most critical step in sprinkler design. If the hazard is underestimated, the fire can overpower the sprinklers.<ref name="Fle-73" /> This step is described under [[sprinkler hazard classification]]. Sprinkler design for fire suppression is largely empirical. The criteria for rack storage and for large-drop and early suppression sprinklers are based on full-scale tests, while most other criteria rest on experience and judgement.<ref name="Fle-73" />

	Ordinary sprinklers are designed to control a fire. An [[ESFR sprinkler]], short for early suppression fast response, combines a fast response with large water drops and a high velocity, so that it can extinguish a high-challenge fire. Its installation rules are strict, and in-rack sprinklers are a separate type placed within the racks.<ref name="IS-10-3">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-3.</ref> The variables of storage protection include the water application rate, the response time index, the temperature rating and in-rack protection, and the storage arrangement matters as well.<ref name="Sch-113">Scheffey (2002), p. 4-113.</ref> Water from sprinklers also wets the goods, which helps to stop the fire from jumping across the aisles of a warehouse.<ref name="Tew-151">Tewarson (2002), p. 3-151.</ref>		Ordinary sprinklers are designed to control a fire. An ESFR sprinkler, short for early suppression fast response, combines a fast response with large water drops and a high velocity, so that it can extinguish a high-challenge fire. Its installation rules are strict, and in-rack sprinklers are a separate type placed within the racks.<ref name="IS-10-3">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-3.</ref> The variables of storage protection include the water application rate, the response time index, the temperature rating and in-rack protection, and the storage arrangement matters as well.<ref name="Sch-113">Scheffey (2002), p. 4-113.</ref> Water from sprinklers also wets the goods, which helps to stop the fire from jumping across the aisles of a warehouse.<ref name="Tew-151">Tewarson (2002), p. 3-151.</ref>

	Sprinklers in storage buildings perform slightly below average.<ref name="ABCB-C2-76">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C2, p. 76.</ref> The Australian data sheets give a reliability of 84 %, an efficacy of 97 % and an effectiveness of 83 % for storage buildings.<ref name="ABCB-C2-71">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C2, p. 71.</ref> United States data for 2010 to 2014 show that wet-pipe sprinklers in warehouses, excluding cold storage, operated in 84 % of fires and were effective in 82 %.<ref name="Ahr-C2-78">Ahrens (2017), as cited in Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C2, p. 78.</ref>		Sprinklers in storage buildings perform slightly below average.<ref name="ABCB-C2-76">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C2, p. 76.</ref> The Australian data sheets give a reliability of 84 %, an efficacy of 97 % and an effectiveness of 83 % for storage buildings.<ref name="ABCB-C2-71">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C2, p. 71.</ref> United States data for 2010 to 2014 show that wet-pipe sprinklers in warehouses, excluding cold storage, operated in 84 % of fires and were effective in 82 %.<ref name="Ahr-C2-78">Ahrens (2017), as cited in Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C2, p. 78.</ref>
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	In New Zealand, C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) allows manual activation of the fire alarm in buildings such as warehouses, where the ceiling is high and the occupant load is low. The conditions are an average ceiling height of at least 5 m and fewer than 50 occupants who are awake and familiar with the building.<ref name="MBIE25-26">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 26.</ref><ref name="MBIE25-28" /> The rule rests on 34 simulations with the Fire Dynamics Simulator. In these, the 12 m high building had the fastest ceiling jet, because the growth of a rack fire increases with rack height.<ref name="MBIE13-109">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 109.</ref>		In New Zealand, C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) allows manual activation of the fire alarm in buildings such as warehouses, where the ceiling is high and the occupant load is low. The conditions are an average ceiling height of at least 5 m and fewer than 50 occupants who are awake and familiar with the building.<ref name="MBIE25-26">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 26.</ref><ref name="MBIE25-28" /> The rule rests on 34 simulations with the Fire Dynamics Simulator. In these, the 12 m high building had the fastest ceiling jet, because the growth of a rack fire increases with rack height.<ref name="MBIE13-109">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2013), p. 109.</ref>

	Fire spread can also be limited by the way goods are stored. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines mention changing from rack storage to palletised storage and storing items horizontally rather than vertically.<ref name="IFEG-1.4-7">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.4-7.</ref> Another approach is to lower the oxygen level, the principle behind an [[oxygen reduction system]]. Air contains 23.3 % oxygen by mass.<ref name="Klo-279">Klote (2002), p. 4-279.</ref> Tewarson shows that flames of PMMA, a plastic, go out at an oxygen mass fraction of about 0.18 under normal conditions. When the fuel receives an external heat flux of 65 kW/m², it keeps burning down to 0.128.<ref name="Tew-155">Tewarson (2002), p. 3-155.</ref>		Fire spread can also be limited by the way goods are stored. The International Fire Engineering Guidelines mention changing from rack storage to palletised storage and storing items horizontally rather than vertically.<ref name="IFEG-1.4-7">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.4-7.</ref> Another approach is to lower the oxygen level, the principle behind an oxygen reduction system. Air contains 23.3 % oxygen by mass.<ref name="Klo-279">Klote (2002), p. 4-279.</ref> Tewarson shows that flames of PMMA, a plastic, go out at an oxygen mass fraction of about 0.18 under normal conditions. When the fuel receives an external heat flux of 65 kW/m², it keeps burning down to 0.128.<ref name="Tew-155">Tewarson (2002), p. 3-155.</ref>

	== Regulation and limits ==		== Regulation and limits ==

Ventilation factor

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[External flaming]]		* [[External flaming]]
	* [[Glass breakage in fire]]		* Glass breakage in fire
	* [[Time equivalence]]		* [[Time equivalence]]

Timber in fire

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	The residual section can be warm even where it has not converted to char. Under natural exposure, White notes that heating during the cooling period can affect more than a narrow outer layer. Residual dimensions and temperature consequently describe different aspects of the member. Treating all uncharred wood as unchanged would omit that thermal history.<ref name="W_4-264" />		The residual section can be warm even where it has not converted to char. Under natural exposure, White notes that heating during the cooling period can affect more than a narrow outer layer. Residual dimensions and temperature consequently describe different aspects of the member. Treating all uncharred wood as unchanged would omit that thermal history.<ref name="W_4-264" />

	Member size influences the relationship between those effects. Large solid and glued timber members can retain a substantial interior while their exposed surfaces char. These members connect the subject to [[Mass timber]], although a calculation for one solid or glued member does not establish every assembly's behaviour. White's example methods specify material, dimensional and exposure limits.<ref name="W_4-261_4-264">White (2002), pp. 4-261–4-264.</ref>		Member size influences the relationship between those effects. Large solid and glued timber members can retain a substantial interior while their exposed surfaces char. These members connect the subject to Mass timber, although a calculation for one solid or glued member does not establish every assembly's behaviour. White's example methods specify material, dimensional and exposure limits.<ref name="W_4-261_4-264">White (2002), pp. 4-261–4-264.</ref>

	Loading remains part of the structural problem. White identifies the capacity of the remaining wood as a separate contribution from the membrane and the char depth. A member can lose structural function before all its wood is consumed. Conversely, visible charring does not by itself specify the time at which the applied load can no longer be carried.<ref name="W_4-257" /><ref name="W_4-260" />		Loading remains part of the structural problem. White identifies the capacity of the remaining wood as a separate contribution from the membrane and the char depth. A member can lose structural function before all its wood is consumed. Conversely, visible charring does not by itself specify the time at which the applied load can no longer be carried.<ref name="W_4-257" /><ref name="W_4-260" />

Tunnel fire

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	A '''tunnel fire''' is a fire in a road, rail or service tunnel, usually involving one or more vehicles or the installations in the tunnel. Because a tunnel is enclosed, the smoke of the fire stays around the people inside it, and their ability to move away from the fire is restricted.<ref name="Buk-229">Bukowski (2002), p. 5-229.</ref> Temperatures can become far higher than in an ordinary room fire: in the Summit rail tunnel fire on British Railways in 1984, the faces of brick-lined ventilation shafts fused.<ref name="DoT-13-7">Department of Transport (1984), as cited in Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 13-7.</ref>		A '''tunnel fire''' is a fire in a road, rail or service tunnel, usually involving one or more vehicles or the installations in the tunnel. Because a tunnel is enclosed, the smoke of the fire stays around the people inside it, and their ability to move away from the fire is restricted.<ref name="Buk-229">Bukowski (2002), p. 5-229.</ref> Temperatures can become far higher than in an ordinary room fire: in the Summit rail tunnel fire on British Railways in 1984, the faces of brick-lined ventilation shafts fused.<ref name="DoT-13-7">Department of Transport (1984), as cited in Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 13-7.</ref>

	In the Netherlands, tunnels do not fit well into the building regulations, which are written mainly for buildings in which people stay. Fire safety engineering is therefore applied to tunnels on several aspects, and tunnels are usually fitted with a smoke management system.<ref name="VR-11.2">Van Rossum (2027), §11.2.</ref> [[Tunnel ventilation]] can keep part of a tunnel free of smoke by blowing air against the smoke, but the same airflow brings oxygen to the fire.<ref name="Klo-279">Klote (2002), p. 4-279.</ref> In fire tests, the peak heat release rate of vehicles ranged from about 1.5 MW for an older car to about 120 MW for a loaded truck.<ref name="Bab-27">Babrauskas (2002b), p. 3-27.</ref><ref name="Bab-28">Babrauskas (2002b), p. 3-28.</ref>		In the Netherlands, tunnels do not fit well into the building regulations, which are written mainly for buildings in which people stay. Fire safety engineering is therefore applied to tunnels on several aspects, and tunnels are usually fitted with a smoke management system.<ref name="VR-11.2">Van Rossum (2027), §11.2.</ref> Tunnel ventilation can keep part of a tunnel free of smoke by blowing air against the smoke, but the same airflow brings oxygen to the fire.<ref name="Klo-279">Klote (2002), p. 4-279.</ref> In fire tests, the peak heat release rate of vehicles ranged from about 1.5 MW for an older car to about 120 MW for a loaded truck.<ref name="Bab-27">Babrauskas (2002b), p. 3-27.</ref><ref name="Bab-28">Babrauskas (2002b), p. 3-28.</ref>

	== Why tunnels differ from buildings ==		== Why tunnels differ from buildings ==
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	== Smoke control and critical velocity ==		== Smoke control and critical velocity ==
	Smoke can be stopped from flowing through an opening, such as a doorway or a corridor, by an airflow against it.<ref name="Klo-279" /> One criterion for the design air velocity is that no smoke flows back during the evacuation.<ref name="Klo-286">Klote (2002), p. 4-286.</ref> If the airflow is too weak, smoke flows back against it, a phenomenon known as [[backlayering]].<ref name="Klo-278">Klote (2002), p. 4-278.</ref> The lowest air velocity that prevents this is the [[critical velocity]]. Thomas developed an empirical relation for this velocity in a corridor, which Klote gives in a simplified form for normal air properties:<ref name="Klo-279" />		Smoke can be stopped from flowing through an opening, such as a doorway or a corridor, by an airflow against it.<ref name="Klo-279" /> One criterion for the design air velocity is that no smoke flows back during the evacuation.<ref name="Klo-286">Klote (2002), p. 4-286.</ref> If the airflow is too weak, smoke flows back against it, a phenomenon known as backlayering.<ref name="Klo-278">Klote (2002), p. 4-278.</ref> The lowest air velocity that prevents this is the [[critical velocity]]. Thomas developed an empirical relation for this velocity in a corridor, which Klote gives in a simplified form for normal air properties:<ref name="Klo-279" />

	[[File:fse-tunnel-fire-v1.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Two longitudinal tunnel sections with a burning vehicle: weak airflow lets smoke flow back upstream; stronger airflow keeps all smoke downstream.\|Airflow below the critical velocity (top): smoke flows back upstream against the air. Airflow at or above the critical velocity (bottom): the upstream side stays free of smoke. Based on Klote (2002), pp. 4-278–4-279.]]		[[File:fse-tunnel-fire-v1.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Two longitudinal tunnel sections with a burning vehicle: weak airflow lets smoke flow back upstream; stronger airflow keeps all smoke downstream.\|Airflow below the critical velocity (top): smoke flows back upstream against the air. Airflow at or above the critical velocity (bottom): the upstream side stays free of smoke. Based on Klote (2002), pp. 4-278–4-279.]]
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	== Fire exposure of the tunnel structure ==		== Fire exposure of the tunnel structure ==
	A tunnel lining must resist fires that are more severe than the standard fire of a building test. The book names two less common temperature–time curves that are more severe than the standard fire curve. One is the Rijkswaterstaat curve for tunnels, known as the [[RWS fire curve]]; the other is the hydrocarbon curve, which simulates an oil or gas fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> Fire curves are agreed temperature histories used to compare tested constructions; they do not reproduce the heat development of a real fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> Most furnace tests simulate a cellulosic fire, which grows more slowly than a hydrocarbon fire. In the United States, exposure ratings for hydrocarbon fires are given as H ratings under UL 1709.<ref name="IS-C-8">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-8.</ref><ref name="IS-C-9">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-9.</ref>		A tunnel lining must resist fires that are more severe than the standard fire of a building test. The book names two less common temperature–time curves that are more severe than the standard fire curve. One is the Rijkswaterstaat curve for tunnels, known as the RWS fire curve; the other is the hydrocarbon curve, which simulates an oil or gas fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> Fire curves are agreed temperature histories used to compare tested constructions; they do not reproduce the heat development of a real fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> Most furnace tests simulate a cellulosic fire, which grows more slowly than a hydrocarbon fire. In the United States, exposure ratings for hydrocarbon fires are given as H ratings under UL 1709.<ref name="IS-C-8">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-8.</ref><ref name="IS-C-9">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-9.</ref>

	Concrete linings can suffer from [[spalling]], in which layers or pieces of concrete break off the heated surface, sometimes violently. Spalling is caused by a build-up of pore pressure from water vapour during heating, although some researchers attribute it to restrained thermal expansion near the surface. Extensive spalling can lead to early loss of stability and integrity, because it exposes the reinforcement.<ref name="KH-163">Kodur and Harmathy (2002), p. 1-163.</ref>		Concrete linings can suffer from [[spalling]], in which layers or pieces of concrete break off the heated surface, sometimes violently. Spalling is caused by a build-up of pore pressure from water vapour during heating, although some researchers attribute it to restrained thermal expansion near the surface. Extensive spalling can lead to early loss of stability and integrity, because it exposes the reinforcement.<ref name="KH-163">Kodur and Harmathy (2002), p. 1-163.</ref>

Thermal runaway

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	== Thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries ==		== Thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries ==
	A battery pack in an electric vehicle is built up in steps. Cells deliver about 4 V, cells are combined into modules of up to 60 V, and modules are connected into packs of 300 to 1,000 V. Packs in passenger cars can store 100 kWh or more.<ref name="VdG-21">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 21.</ref> Packs can also be connected into larger battery systems of 10 to 400 kWh, for example for trucks and electric ships.<ref name="VdG-21" /> Stationary installations of this kind are described under [[battery energy storage system]].		A battery pack in an electric vehicle is built up in steps. Cells deliver about 4 V, cells are combined into modules of up to 60 V, and modules are connected into packs of 300 to 1,000 V. Packs in passenger cars can store 100 kWh or more.<ref name="VdG-21">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 21.</ref> Packs can also be connected into larger battery systems of 10 to 400 kWh, for example for trucks and electric ships.<ref name="VdG-21" /> Stationary installations of this kind are described under battery energy storage system.

	Each battery pack has its own safety window. If it is exceeded, the pack can heat up further and thermal runaway can occur.<ref name="ARB-22">Air Resources Board (2015), as cited in Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 22.</ref> The onset temperature depends on the type of battery and ranges from 70 to 250 °C.<ref name="Sun-22" /> Elsewhere the NIPV report gives a range of 50 to 270 °C, and it stresses that "lithium-ion" covers many battery types with different fire behaviour.<ref name="VdG-18">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 18.</ref> A battery management system monitors the cells. When a threshold is exceeded it can apply active cooling during charging, stop the charging or disconnect the whole pack, and a fault in the system itself also switches the pack off.<ref name="VdG-23">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 23.</ref>		Each battery pack has its own safety window. If it is exceeded, the pack can heat up further and thermal runaway can occur.<ref name="ARB-22">Air Resources Board (2015), as cited in Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 22.</ref> The onset temperature depends on the type of battery and ranges from 70 to 250 °C.<ref name="Sun-22" /> Elsewhere the NIPV report gives a range of 50 to 270 °C, and it stresses that "lithium-ion" covers many battery types with different fire behaviour.<ref name="VdG-18">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 18.</ref> A battery management system monitors the cells. When a threshold is exceeded it can apply active cooling during charging, stop the charging or disconnect the whole pack, and a fault in the system itself also switches the pack off.<ref name="VdG-23">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 23.</ref>

Thermal radiation

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	* [[Fire-resistant glazing]]		* [[Fire-resistant glazing]]
	* [[Flame detector]]		* [[Flame detector]]
	* [[Glass breakage in fire]]		* Glass breakage in fire
	* [[Radiative fraction]]		* [[Radiative fraction]]

Sprinkler head

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	Fast-response products reduce thermal lag, while other designs alter droplet size, distribution or protected area. These features address different parts of performance. Faster activation alone does not establish adequate spray penetration or sufficient water at the burning surface.<ref name="NUREG-10-3" /><ref name="NUREG-10-11" />		Fast-response products reduce thermal lag, while other designs alter droplet size, distribution or protected area. These features address different parts of performance. Faster activation alone does not establish adequate spray penetration or sufficient water at the burning surface.<ref name="NUREG-10-3" /><ref name="NUREG-10-11" />

	An [[ESFR sprinkler]] is an early-suppression, fast-response sprinkler intended for high-challenge fires. NUREG-1805 describes its combination of rapid response, large droplets and velocity. It is designed for suppression rather than only control, subject to strict design and installation conditions.<ref name="NUREG-10-3" />		An ESFR sprinkler is an early-suppression, fast-response sprinkler intended for high-challenge fires. NUREG-1805 describes its combination of rapid response, large droplets and velocity. It is designed for suppression rather than only control, subject to strict design and installation conditions.<ref name="NUREG-10-3" />

	Extended-coverage products can protect a larger listed area than conventional arrangements. This can reduce branch piping, but the wider coverage must remain within the product's tested conditions. Extended coverage is not permission to increase spacing independently of pressure and obstruction requirements.<ref name="NUREG-10-3" />		Extended-coverage products can protect a larger listed area than conventional arrangements. This can reduce branch piping, but the wider coverage must remain within the product's tested conditions. Extended coverage is not permission to increase spacing independently of pressure and obstruction requirements.<ref name="NUREG-10-3" />

Standard fire curve

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	== Other nominal curves ==		== Other nominal curves ==
	The standard curve is one of several agreed temperature–time curves. ''Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering'' names the external fire exposure curve, used to test facade elements against a fire in the open air. It also names two less frequently used curves that are more intense than these two. These are the Rijkswaterstaat curve for tunnels and the [[hydrocarbon fire curve]], which simulates an oil or gas fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> The book stresses that such curves are only agreed temperature courses and in principle do not correspond to the heat development in a real fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" />		The standard curve is one of several agreed temperature–time curves. ''Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering'' names the external fire exposure curve, used to test facade elements against a fire in the open air. It also names two less frequently used curves that are more intense than these two. These are the Rijkswaterstaat curve for tunnels and the hydrocarbon fire curve, which simulates an oil or gas fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> The book stresses that such curves are only agreed temperature courses and in principle do not correspond to the heat development in a real fire.<ref name="VR-8.6" />

	A temperature–time curve can also be used inside calculation models. The Eurocodes offer a choice between a temperature–time curve and a natural fire, whose temperature course follows from the characteristics of the fire and the room.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> A [[parametric fire curve]] is one form of such a design fire. In a worked example in the Australian Fire Safety Verification Method Data Sheets, a design fire produced a parametric curve that was closely aligned with the hydrocarbon heating regime.<ref name="ABCB-C8-233">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C8, p. 233.</ref>		A temperature–time curve can also be used inside calculation models. The Eurocodes offer a choice between a temperature–time curve and a natural fire, whose temperature course follows from the characteristics of the fire and the room.<ref name="VR-8.6" /> A [[parametric fire curve]] is one form of such a design fire. In a worked example in the Australian Fire Safety Verification Method Data Sheets, a design fire produced a parametric curve that was closely aligned with the hydrocarbon heating regime.<ref name="ABCB-C8-233">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet C8, p. 233.</ref>
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	* [[Structural fire engineering]]		* [[Structural fire engineering]]
	* [[Charring rate]]		* [[Charring rate]]
	* [[RWS fire curve]]		* RWS fire curve
	* [[Eurocodes]]		* [[Eurocodes]]

Sprinkler hazard classification

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	The intended protection outcome also matters when interpreting a classification. The NIST report distinguishes fire control from suppression-oriented performance. Control aims to limit growth and spread, and final extinguishment may require fire service action. The existence of an occupancy category does not imply that every fire under that protection will be completely extinguished by the first operating sprinkler.<ref name="H-15-16">Hopkins et al. (2005), pp. 15–16.</ref>		The intended protection outcome also matters when interpreting a classification. The NIST report distinguishes fire control from suppression-oriented performance. Control aims to limit growth and spread, and final extinguishment may require fire service action. The existence of an occupancy category does not imply that every fire under that protection will be completely extinguished by the first operating sprinkler.<ref name="H-15-16">Hopkins et al. (2005), pp. 15–16.</ref>

	An [[ESFR sprinkler~~\|ESFR sprinkler]]~~ is a particular suppression technology, rather than another occupancy hazard class. NUREG-1805 describes fast response, large droplets and discharge velocity as features intended for demanding fires. It also stresses strict design and installation requirements. The technology's name cannot replace information about the storage or the conditions under which its protection is supported.<ref name="N-10-3" />		An ESFR sprinkler is a particular suppression technology, rather than another occupancy hazard class. NUREG-1805 describes fast response, large droplets and discharge velocity as features intended for demanding fires. It also stresses strict design and installation requirements. The technology's name cannot replace information about the storage or the conditions under which its protection is supported.<ref name="N-10-3" />

	Special sprinkler criteria can specify flows and pressures that differ from a conventional area/density approach. Fleming explains that such sprinklers are approved for particular protection goals and are not generally interchangeable. A change of sprinkler type must therefore retain the connection between the hazard, the relevant approval and the hydraulic conditions. A similar nominal flow is not sufficient evidence of equivalent application.<ref name="F-73" /><ref name="F-75">Fleming (2002), p. 4-75.</ref>		Special sprinkler criteria can specify flows and pressures that differ from a conventional area/density approach. Fleming explains that such sprinklers are approved for particular protection goals and are not generally interchangeable. A change of sprinkler type must therefore retain the connection between the hazard, the relevant approval and the hydraulic conditions. A similar nominal flow is not sufficient evidence of equivalent application.<ref name="F-73" /><ref name="F-75">Fleming (2002), p. 4-75.</ref>

Sprinkler design density

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[ESFR sprinkler]]		* ESFR sprinkler

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==

Spalling

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	High-strength concrete is especially sensitive. It contains additives such as silica fume and water-reducing admixtures and reaches compressive strengths of 50 to 120 MPa.<ref name="FB-4-255" /> Its smaller free-pore volume fills with high-pressure vapour more quickly, and its low porosity slows the escape of that vapour.<ref name="FB-4-255" /> For high-strength concrete, the SFPE Handbook names strength, porosity, density, load intensity, fire intensity, aggregate type and relative humidity as the main parameters.<ref name="KH-1-164">Kodur and Harmathy (2002), p. 1-164.</ref> In full-scale fire tests on loaded columns, spalling was quite significant in a high-strength concrete column compared with a normal-strength one.<ref name="KH-1-163" /> High-strength concrete also tends to lose strength faster than normal concrete at temperatures up to 400 °C.<ref name="FB-4-255" />		High-strength concrete is especially sensitive. It contains additives such as silica fume and water-reducing admixtures and reaches compressive strengths of 50 to 120 MPa.<ref name="FB-4-255" /> Its smaller free-pore volume fills with high-pressure vapour more quickly, and its low porosity slows the escape of that vapour.<ref name="FB-4-255" /> For high-strength concrete, the SFPE Handbook names strength, porosity, density, load intensity, fire intensity, aggregate type and relative humidity as the main parameters.<ref name="KH-1-164">Kodur and Harmathy (2002), p. 1-164.</ref> In full-scale fire tests on loaded columns, spalling was quite significant in a high-strength concrete column compared with a normal-strength one.<ref name="KH-1-163" /> High-strength concrete also tends to lose strength faster than normal concrete at temperatures up to 400 °C.<ref name="FB-4-255" />

	The rate of heating links spalling to the choice of design fire. ''Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering'' notes that the [[RWS fire curve]] for tunnels and the [[hydrocarbon fire curve]] for oil and gas fires are more intense than the standard fire curve.<ref name="VR-8.6">Van Rossum (2027), §8.6.</ref> Because a rapid rate of heating is one of the listed risk factors, spalling is a particular concern under these more intense exposures.<ref name="FB-4-255" /><ref name="VR-8.6" /> Tunnels are also among the structures for which the book expects a fire safety engineering approach instead of prescriptive rules. The wider hazards of a [[tunnel fire]] are treated in a separate article.<ref name="VR-1.5">Van Rossum (2027), §1.5.</ref>		The rate of heating links spalling to the choice of design fire. ''Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering'' notes that the RWS fire curve for tunnels and the hydrocarbon fire curve for oil and gas fires are more intense than the standard fire curve.<ref name="VR-8.6">Van Rossum (2027), §8.6.</ref> Because a rapid rate of heating is one of the listed risk factors, spalling is a particular concern under these more intense exposures.<ref name="FB-4-255" /><ref name="VR-8.6" /> Tunnels are also among the structures for which the book expects a fire safety engineering approach instead of prescriptive rules. The wider hazards of a [[tunnel fire]] are treated in a separate article.<ref name="VR-1.5">Van Rossum (2027), §1.5.</ref>

	== Heating depth and structural effects ==		== Heating depth and structural effects ==

Societal risk

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	People do not judge equal calculated risks equally. Studies of risk perception have found preferences for more certainty over less, for familiar over unfamiliar risks and for voluntary over involuntary risks. They have also found preferences for common or ordinary risks over dramatic or memorable ones.<ref name="WH-3" /> Individuals and organisations are inconsistent in their risk aversion, and the view that the present level of public fire risk must be acceptable is not a fully reliable generalisation.<ref name="WH-4" />		People do not judge equal calculated risks equally. Studies of risk perception have found preferences for more certainty over less, for familiar over unfamiliar risks and for voluntary over involuntary risks. They have also found preferences for common or ordinary risks over dramatic or memorable ones.<ref name="WH-3" /> Individuals and organisations are inconsistent in their risk aversion, and the view that the present level of public fire risk must be acceptable is not a fully reliable generalisation.<ref name="WH-4" />

	Zero risk is not an achievable goal. Watts and Hall describe the goal that comes closest to it as risk as low as is technically possible: the residual risk after all identified risk reduction measures have been adopted.<ref name="WH-4" /> Australian safe design practice follows a related test. Under the code of practice of Safe Work Australia, control measures should eliminate risks or, if this is not ~~[[ALARP\|~~reasonably practicable]], minimise them.<ref name="SW-25">Safe Work Australia (2012), as cited in Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 25.</ref> Where risk reduction is weighed against its cost, human risk may have to be converted into equivalent monetary terms.<ref name="BA-211" />		Zero risk is not an achievable goal. Watts and Hall describe the goal that comes closest to it as risk as low as is technically possible: the residual risk after all identified risk reduction measures have been adopted.<ref name="WH-4" /> Australian safe design practice follows a related test. Under the code of practice of Safe Work Australia, control measures should eliminate risks or, if this is not reasonably practicable, minimise them.<ref name="SW-25">Safe Work Australia (2012), as cited in Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 25.</ref> Where risk reduction is weighed against its cost, human risk may have to be converted into equivalent monetary terms.<ref name="BA-211" />

	The Netherlands shows the problem of implicit acceptance levels. Dutch building regulations do not state how many deaths or injuries a fire may cause. Their requirements grew partly from consensus and history rather than from quantified goals.<ref name="VR-1.2">Van Rossum (2027), §1.2.</ref> Van Rossum notes that the chance of dying in a fire, per hour of stay, is much greater in a residential building than in an assembly building. Yet the requirements for fire detection are stricter for assembly buildings.<ref name="VR-1.2" />		The Netherlands shows the problem of implicit acceptance levels. Dutch building regulations do not state how many deaths or injuries a fire may cause. Their requirements grew partly from consensus and history rather than from quantified goals.<ref name="VR-1.2">Van Rossum (2027), §1.2.</ref> Van Rossum notes that the chance of dying in a fire, per hour of stay, is much greater in a residential building than in an assembly building. Yet the requirements for fire detection are stricter for assembly buildings.<ref name="VR-1.2" />

Sprinkler-vent interaction

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[ESFR sprinkler]]		* ESFR sprinkler
	* [[Response time index]]		* [[Response time index]]
	* [[Sprinkler hazard classification]]		* [[Sprinkler hazard classification]]

Stair pressurisation

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[Evacuation lift]]		* [[Evacuation lift]]
	* [[Positive pressure ventilation]]		* Positive pressure ventilation
	* [[Network model]]		* [[Network model]]

Sprinkler skipping

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	Many factors influence how sprinklers respond. They include the temperature rating, spacing and depth of the sprinklers below the ceiling, and the ceiling height.<ref name="N-10-2">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-2.</ref> Openings, joists and air currents at ceiling level also change the flow of hot gases.<ref name="N-10-2" /> Fleming adds that heat conduction to the sprinkler frame and the distance of the element below the ceiling have a significant effect on response.<ref name="F-85" /> In one of his examples, a computer model shows that quick response sprinklers 0.46 m below a basement ceiling keep a sensitivity comparable to standard sprinklers at the usual maximum of 0.30 m.<ref name="F-85" /> For the chosen fire, the standard sprinkler operates after 200 s and the quick response sprinkler after 172 s.<ref name="F-85" />		Many factors influence how sprinklers respond. They include the temperature rating, spacing and depth of the sprinklers below the ceiling, and the ceiling height.<ref name="N-10-2">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-2.</ref> Openings, joists and air currents at ceiling level also change the flow of hot gases.<ref name="N-10-2" /> Fleming adds that heat conduction to the sprinkler frame and the distance of the element below the ceiling have a significant effect on response.<ref name="F-85" /> In one of his examples, a computer model shows that quick response sprinklers 0.46 m below a basement ceiling keep a sensitivity comparable to standard sprinklers at the usual maximum of 0.30 m.<ref name="F-85" /> For the chosen fire, the standard sprinkler operates after 200 s and the quick response sprinkler after 172 s.<ref name="F-85" />

	An [[ESFR sprinkler]] (early suppression fast response sprinkler) is designed to extinguish high-challenge fires, not only to control them.<ref name="N-10-3">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-3.</ref> It combines a fast response with large droplets and a high droplet velocity.<ref name="N-10-3" /> Its element has an RTI of 50 (m·s)<sup>1/2</sup> or less, against 80 (m·s)<sup>1/2</sup> or more for standard sprinklers.<ref name="N-F-21">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-21.</ref> Large drop ESFR sprinklers protect high-piled storage in wet pipe systems and were developed by Factory Mutual Research Corporation in the late 1970s and early 1980s.<ref name="N-F-21" /> Their design criteria come from full-scale testing, and very strict design and installation rules apply to them.<ref name="F-73">Fleming (2002), p. 4-73.</ref><ref name="N-10-3" />		An ESFR sprinkler (early suppression fast response sprinkler) is designed to extinguish high-challenge fires, not only to control them.<ref name="N-10-3">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-3.</ref> It combines a fast response with large droplets and a high droplet velocity.<ref name="N-10-3" /> Its element has an RTI of 50 (m·s)<sup>1/2</sup> or less, against 80 (m·s)<sup>1/2</sup> or more for standard sprinklers.<ref name="N-F-21">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-21.</ref> Large drop ESFR sprinklers protect high-piled storage in wet pipe systems and were developed by Factory Mutual Research Corporation in the late 1970s and early 1980s.<ref name="N-F-21" /> Their design criteria come from full-scale testing, and very strict design and installation rules apply to them.<ref name="F-73">Fleming (2002), p. 4-73.</ref><ref name="N-10-3" />

	== Skipping in performance-based analysis ==		== Skipping in performance-based analysis ==

Smouldering

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	* [[Firebrands]]		* [[Firebrands]]
	* [[Hot work]]		* [[Hot work]]
	* [[Mass timber]]		* Mass timber
	* [[Timber in fire]]		* [[Timber in fire]]

SFPE

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	* [[Fire scenario]]		* [[Fire scenario]]
	* [[Fire safety objectives]]		* [[Fire safety objectives]]
	* [[Qualitative design review]]		* Qualitative design review
	* [[Building regulations]]		* [[Building regulations]]

Smoke control

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	[[Atrium smoke control]] must account for the connected volume and the locations requiring protection. Smoke can collect above an atrium fire or arrive from an adjoining space. The relevant plume and layer model therefore depends on the actual fire location.<ref name="Cooper-3-219" /><ref name="IFEG-2-5-2" />		[[Atrium smoke control]] must account for the connected volume and the locations requiring protection. Smoke can collect above an atrium fire or arrive from an adjoining space. The relevant plume and layer model therefore depends on the actual fire location.<ref name="Cooper-3-219" /><ref name="IFEG-2-5-2" />

	[[Tunnel ventilation]] is another application of smoke control. Van Rossum identifies tunnels as spaces in which fire-engineering analysis addresses conditions that differ from ordinary occupied buildings. Computational fluid dynamics, which calculates gas movement through a divided modelled space, can investigate the effectiveness of the proposed system.<ref name="VR-11.2">Van Rossum (2027), §11.2.</ref>		Tunnel ventilation is another application of smoke control. Van Rossum identifies tunnels as spaces in which fire-engineering analysis addresses conditions that differ from ordinary occupied buildings. Computational fluid dynamics, which calculates gas movement through a divided modelled space, can investigate the effectiveness of the proposed system.<ref name="VR-11.2">Van Rossum (2027), §11.2.</ref>

	== System interaction and reliability ==		== System interaction and reliability ==

Reaction to fire

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	In a room-corner test, lining materials are mounted on the walls or ceiling of a small enclosure. A burner near a rear corner provides the ignition exposure. Combustion products leave through the opening and enter a collection hood. Measurements in the exhaust can include gas concentrations, flow and smoke obscuration, alongside the information needed to determine heat release.<ref name="J_3-39" />		In a room-corner test, lining materials are mounted on the walls or ceiling of a small enclosure. A burner near a rear corner provides the ignition exposure. Combustion products leave through the opening and enter a collection hood. Measurements in the exhaust can include gas concentrations, flow and smoke obscuration, alongside the information needed to determine heat release.<ref name="J_3-39" />

	The [[Single Burning Item test]] uses two wall panels arranged as a corner without a ceiling. Babrauskas describes it as a European regulatory heat-release test in the 2002 handbook, and its geometry differs from the enclosed room-corner arrangement. The [[Euroclass system]] is the related classification topic; the historical test description alone does not provide a complete classification procedure.<ref name="B_3-32" />		The Single Burning Item test uses two wall panels arranged as a corner without a ceiling. Babrauskas describes it as a European regulatory heat-release test in the 2002 handbook, and its geometry differs from the enclosed room-corner arrangement. The [[Euroclass system]] is the related classification topic; the historical test description alone does not provide a complete classification procedure.<ref name="B_3-32" />

	Calorimeter results depend on specimen mounting, orientation, geometry and exposure. Janssens reports comparisons in which different apparatuses produced different peaks or time-dependent heat-release behaviour. Agreement for an average value did not necessarily imply agreement for the peak. The measured quantity and averaging period therefore belong with any reported result.<ref name="J_3-56" />		Calorimeter results depend on specimen mounting, orientation, geometry and exposure. Janssens reports comparisons in which different apparatuses produced different peaks or time-dependent heat-release behaviour. Agreement for an average value did not necessarily imply agreement for the peak. The measured quantity and averaging period therefore belong with any reported result.<ref name="J_3-56" />

Response time index

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	== Interpretation in sprinkler design ==		== Interpretation in sprinkler design ==

	Fast thermal response is one feature of an [[ESFR sprinkler~~\|ESFR sprinkler]]~~, but it does not establish the complete suppression performance of that sprinkler. NUREG-1805 also identifies droplet size and discharge velocity, together with strict design and installation requirements. A suitable RTI value cannot replace evidence that the sprinkler and its water supply suit the protected hazard.<ref name="N-10-3">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-3.</ref>		Fast thermal response is one feature of an ESFR sprinkler, but it does not establish the complete suppression performance of that sprinkler. NUREG-1805 also identifies droplet size and discharge velocity, together with strict design and installation requirements. A suitable RTI value cannot replace evidence that the sprinkler and its water supply suit the protected hazard.<ref name="N-10-3">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. 10-3.</ref>

	Operation of a thermal element is also distinct from water arrival. In a dry pipe system, valve operation and movement of water through the piping introduce additional delay after a sprinkler opens. Fleming separates this water-delivery time into trip and transit components. These delays do not become part of RTI merely because they influence the eventual application of water.<ref name="F-85" />		Operation of a thermal element is also distinct from water arrival. In a dry pipe system, valve operation and movement of water through the piping introduce additional delay after a sprinkler opens. Fleming separates this water-delivery time into trip and transit components. These delays do not become part of RTI merely because they influence the eventual application of water.<ref name="F-85" />

Sandwich panel

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	== Limits of current knowledge ==		== Limits of current knowledge ==
	The source documents used for this article contain no systematic data on the fire behaviour of complete sandwich panels. They give no measured times to failure of joints or facings and no account of fire spread hidden inside the core. They also give no data on panel roofs that carry solar installations, which are treated under [[photovoltaic system fire]]. The steady-state heat transfer calculation describes only the insulation of an intact panel. It does not show when a facing deforms, opens at a joint or lets flames reach the core.<ref name="VR-5.2" />		The source documents used for this article contain no systematic data on the fire behaviour of complete sandwich panels. They give no measured times to failure of joints or facings and no account of fire spread hidden inside the core. They also give no data on panel roofs that carry solar installations, which are treated under photovoltaic system fire. The steady-state heat transfer calculation describes only the insulation of an intact panel. It does not show when a facing deforms, opens at a joint or lets flames reach the core.<ref name="VR-5.2" />

	Large single-storey buildings raise a further question. In a distribution centre with high racking, fuel at height can ignite as a secondary fire once the smoke layer exceeds 200 °C. Most materials ignite at temperatures between about 200 °C and 500 °C.<ref name="VR-9.3b">Van Rossum (2027), §9.3 (Results from zone models).</ref> How a panel roof above such storage contributes to a [[warehouse fire]] cannot be quantified from the sources available here.		Large single-storey buildings raise a further question. In a distribution centre with high racking, fuel at height can ignite as a secondary fire once the smoke layer exceeds 200 °C. Most materials ignite at temperatures between about 200 °C and 500 °C.<ref name="VR-9.3b">Van Rossum (2027), §9.3 (Results from zone models).</ref> How a panel roof above such storage contributes to a [[warehouse fire]] cannot be quantified from the sources available here.
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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[Reaction to fire]]		* [[Reaction to fire]]
	* [[Single Burning Item test]]		* Single Burning Item test
	* [[Cone calorimeter]]		* [[Cone calorimeter]]
	* [[Large-scale facade fire test]]		* Large-scale facade fire test
	* [[Fire resistance test]]		* [[Fire resistance test]]

Quantitative risk assessment

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[Fire risk assessment]]		* [[Fire risk assessment]]
	* [[ALARP]]		* ALARP
	* [[TNT equivalence]]		* [[TNT equivalence]]
	* [[Common cause failure]]		* [[Common cause failure]]

Room corner test

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	A [[Sandwich panel\|sandwich panel]] with metal faces and a combustible core illustrates the difficulty of relying only on small samples. The 2013 New Zealand provisions reproduced in the commentary require specified larger-scale methods for these assemblies. They also identify foil-faced combustible products and other arrangements unsuitable for cone-based assessment. These are requirements of that named historical New Zealand document, not universal requirements imposed by the room test itself.<ref name="NZ-159" />		A [[Sandwich panel\|sandwich panel]] with metal faces and a combustible core illustrates the difficulty of relying only on small samples. The 2013 New Zealand provisions reproduced in the commentary require specified larger-scale methods for these assemblies. They also identify foil-faced combustible products and other arrangements unsuitable for cone-based assessment. These are requirements of that named historical New Zealand document, not universal requirements imposed by the room test itself.<ref name="NZ-159" />

	The [[Single Burning Item test~~\|Single Burning Item test]]~~ is another arrangement used to evaluate building products. Babrauskas describes it as two wall panels forming a corner without a ceiling. That geometry differs from an enclosed room with wall and ceiling linings. Similar use of heat-release measurements therefore does not make the two test configurations or their classification systems interchangeable.<ref name="B-32">Babrauskas (2002), p. 3-32.</ref>		The Single Burning Item test is another arrangement used to evaluate building products. Babrauskas describes it as two wall panels forming a corner without a ceiling. That geometry differs from an enclosed room with wall and ceiling linings. Similar use of heat-release measurements therefore does not make the two test configurations or their classification systems interchangeable.<ref name="B-32">Babrauskas (2002), p. 3-32.</ref>

	A group classification also does not specify a universal outcome for every proposed installation. The New Zealand commentary relates required lining performance to occupancy, escape routes, occupant evacuation ability and sprinkler protection. These considerations determine where a classified product is acceptable within the stated framework. The experiment supplies product evidence; the framework connects that evidence to the building conditions and fire-safety purpose.<ref name="NZ-139" />		A group classification also does not specify a universal outcome for every proposed installation. The New Zealand commentary relates required lining performance to occupancy, escape routes, occupant evacuation ability and sprinkler protection. These considerations determine where a classified product is acceptable within the stated framework. The experiment supplies product evidence; the framework connects that evidence to the building conditions and fire-safety purpose.<ref name="NZ-139" />

Reduced cross-section method

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	The International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) define heavy timber as large sawn or glue-laminated members with a smallest dimension of at least 80 mm, citing Buchanan.<ref name="IFEG-9" /> For such members, the guidelines refer to White's chapter and to the Australian Standard AS 1720.4 for methods to determine fire resistance.<ref name="IFEG-10" /> In Australia, the data sheets of the Fire Safety Verification Method (2020) list AS 1720.4 among the structural design codes that provide methods for calculating the fire resistance level of an element.<ref name="ABCBD-33">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet B3, p. 33.</ref> They cite the 2006 edition of this standard.<ref name="ABCBD-44">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet B3, p. 44.</ref>		The International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) define heavy timber as large sawn or glue-laminated members with a smallest dimension of at least 80 mm, citing Buchanan.<ref name="IFEG-9" /> For such members, the guidelines refer to White's chapter and to the Australian Standard AS 1720.4 for methods to determine fire resistance.<ref name="IFEG-10" /> In Australia, the data sheets of the Fire Safety Verification Method (2020) list AS 1720.4 among the structural design codes that provide methods for calculating the fire resistance level of an element.<ref name="ABCBD-33">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet B3, p. 33.</ref> They cite the 2006 edition of this standard.<ref name="ABCBD-44">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), Data Sheet B3, p. 44.</ref>

	White's remark on member size concerns the related reduced-properties equations. Their application is generally limited to large wood members, and in light-frame members the α values would be substantially lower.<ref name="W-267" /> None of the sources cited here deals specifically with [[mass timber]] products.		White's remark on member size concerns the related reduced-properties equations. Their application is generally limited to large wood members, and in light-frame members the α values would be substantially lower.<ref name="W-267" /> None of the sources cited here deals specifically with mass timber products.

	Connections need separate attention. Where a fire endurance of 1 hour is required, connectors and fasteners must be protected by 38 mm of wood, fire-rated gypsum board of suitable thickness, or a coating approved for a 1-hour rating.<ref name="W-268" /> Glued-laminated beams often have a high-strength tension laminate at the bottom. Under the North American procedure for exposed members with a 1-hour rating, a core lamination is removed and an extra outer tension lamination added. A high-strength laminate then remains after charring.<ref name="W-268" />		Connections need separate attention. Where a fire endurance of 1 hour is required, connectors and fasteners must be protected by 38 mm of wood, fire-rated gypsum board of suitable thickness, or a coating approved for a 1-hour rating.<ref name="W-268" /> Glued-laminated beams often have a high-strength tension laminate at the bottom. Under the North American procedure for exposed members with a 1-hour rating, a core lamination is removed and an extra outer tension lamination added. A high-strength laminate then remains after charring.<ref name="W-268" />

Pool fire

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	Water is often a poor extinguishing agent for these fires. A liquid that is lighter than water and does not mix with it floats on the water and keeps burning.<ref name="IS-B-58">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-58.</ref> [[Firefighting foam]] is therefore widely used for fires of flammable and combustible liquids: it keeps air from the fuel, cools as the water drains from it, and protects surfaces that are not yet burning.<ref name="IS-B-58" /> It must be applied in sufficient volume and at a sufficient rate to make up for the foam destroyed by heat and flames.<ref name="IS-B-59">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-59.</ref> Fixed foam systems are used in bunds and on spills, and subsurface injection of low-expansion foam into hydrocarbon storage tanks is a recognised design method in the NFPA standards.<ref name="IS-B-60">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-60.</ref>		Water is often a poor extinguishing agent for these fires. A liquid that is lighter than water and does not mix with it floats on the water and keeps burning.<ref name="IS-B-58">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-58.</ref> [[Firefighting foam]] is therefore widely used for fires of flammable and combustible liquids: it keeps air from the fuel, cools as the water drains from it, and protects surfaces that are not yet burning.<ref name="IS-B-58" /> It must be applied in sufficient volume and at a sufficient rate to make up for the foam destroyed by heat and flames.<ref name="IS-B-59">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-59.</ref> Fixed foam systems are used in bunds and on spills, and subsurface injection of low-expansion foam into hydrocarbon storage tanks is a recognised design method in the NFPA standards.<ref name="IS-B-60">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. B-60.</ref>

	Tank fires carry a further hazard. When water penetrates a hot oil whose temperature is well above the boiling point of water, it turns into steam below the surface and causes an eruption of burning oil, called [[boilover]].<ref name="IS-B-58" /> NUREG-1805 describes boilover as a phenomenon of fires in open tanks containing blends such as crude oil, which requires water at the bottom of the tank.<ref name="IS-F-9">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-9.</ref> Foam applied to a liquid at 100 °C or above can also cause boilover, because the steam formed expands the foam fourfold.<ref name="IS-B-60" />		Tank fires carry a further hazard. When water penetrates a hot oil whose temperature is well above the boiling point of water, it turns into steam below the surface and causes an eruption of burning oil, called boilover.<ref name="IS-B-58" /> NUREG-1805 describes boilover as a phenomenon of fires in open tanks containing blends such as crude oil, which requires water at the bottom of the tank.<ref name="IS-F-9">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-9.</ref> Foam applied to a liquid at 100 °C or above can also cause boilover, because the steam formed expands the foam fourfold.<ref name="IS-B-60" />

	Fire resistance tests for structures near pool fires need a different exposure. Most standard tests simulate a cellulosic fire, which grows more slowly than a hydrocarbon fire, although it may ultimately become hotter; specific hydrocarbon fire exposures for pool and jet fires were developed later.<ref name="IS-C-8">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-8.</ref> In the United States, UL 1709 rates barriers for a hydrocarbon fire exposure, with H ratings for 120 minutes against the passage of flame and heat.<ref name="IS-C-9">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-9.</ref> In Australia, the Fire Safety Verification Method data sheets (2020) refer to results of hydrocarbon fire tests and to a ~~[[hydrocarbon fire curve\|~~hydrocarbon heating regime]] alongside the standard one.<ref name="ABCB-233">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), p. 233.</ref>		Fire resistance tests for structures near pool fires need a different exposure. Most standard tests simulate a cellulosic fire, which grows more slowly than a hydrocarbon fire, although it may ultimately become hotter; specific hydrocarbon fire exposures for pool and jet fires were developed later.<ref name="IS-C-8">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-8.</ref> In the United States, UL 1709 rates barriers for a hydrocarbon fire exposure, with H ratings for 120 minutes against the passage of flame and heat.<ref name="IS-C-9">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. C-9.</ref> In Australia, the Fire Safety Verification Method data sheets (2020) refer to results of hydrocarbon fire tests and to a hydrocarbon heating regime alongside the standard one.<ref name="ABCB-233">Australian Building Codes Board (2020a), p. 233.</ref>

	== Limits and uncertainty ==		== Limits and uncertainty ==

Performance-based design

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	[[File:fse-performance-based-design-v2.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Five boxes from fire engineering brief to report, with a loop from the conclusions back to the brief when a trial design fails.\|The fire engineering process: if a trial design does not meet the criteria, the brief is revisited and a new trial design analysed. Based on National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), pp. 1.1-2 and 1.2-2.]]		[[File:fse-performance-based-design-v2.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Five boxes from fire engineering brief to report, with a loop from the conclusions back to the brief when a trial design fails.\|The fire engineering process: if a trial design does not meet the criteria, the brief is revisited and a new trial design analysed. Based on National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), pp. 1.1-2 and 1.2-2.]]

	The FEB covers the scope, stakeholders, building and occupant characteristics, objectives, hazards and available measures, and the trial designs.<ref name="IFEG-1232">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-32.</ref> It also records the non-compliance issues, the approaches and methods of analysis, the [[acceptance criteria]] and factors of safety, and the fire scenarios and design occupant groups.<ref name="IFEG-1232" /> In principle, the objectives, trial designs, methods and criteria are all agreed before the analysis starts.<ref name="IFEG-122" /> At this stage the [[design fire\|design fires]] are described as far as possible without calculation, so the brief works as a ~~[[Qualitative design review\|~~qualitative review]] of the design.<ref name="IFEG-1229">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-29.</ref> If analysis later shows that a trial design is unacceptable, the brief is revisited and a further trial design is developed.<ref name="IFEG-122" />		The FEB covers the scope, stakeholders, building and occupant characteristics, objectives, hazards and available measures, and the trial designs.<ref name="IFEG-1232">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-32.</ref> It also records the non-compliance issues, the approaches and methods of analysis, the [[acceptance criteria]] and factors of safety, and the fire scenarios and design occupant groups.<ref name="IFEG-1232" /> In principle, the objectives, trial designs, methods and criteria are all agreed before the analysis starts.<ref name="IFEG-122" /> At this stage the [[design fire\|design fires]] are described as far as possible without calculation, so the brief works as a qualitative review of the design.<ref name="IFEG-1229">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-29.</ref> If analysis later shows that a trial design is unacceptable, the brief is revisited and a further trial design is developed.<ref name="IFEG-122" />

	Australian practice uses a performance-based design brief (PBDB), followed by a performance-based design report.<ref name="HB-125">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 125.</ref> The report lists all variations from the DTS provisions and the performance requirements they affect. For each design scenario it states whether the proposal reached at least the safety level of a reference building that complies with the DTS provisions.<ref name="HB-125" /> In New Zealand, C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) describes an example process. It runs from concept design and FEB to a trial design tested against ten design scenarios, which is revised until all of them are satisfied.<ref name="CVM2-9">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 9.</ref>		Australian practice uses a performance-based design brief (PBDB), followed by a performance-based design report.<ref name="HB-125">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 125.</ref> The report lists all variations from the DTS provisions and the performance requirements they affect. For each design scenario it states whether the proposal reached at least the safety level of a reference building that complies with the DTS provisions.<ref name="HB-125" /> In New Zealand, C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) describes an example process. It runs from concept design and FEB to a trial design tested against ten design scenarios, which is revised until all of them are satisfied.<ref name="CVM2-9">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 9.</ref>

Probit function

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	* [[Event tree analysis]]		* [[Event tree analysis]]
	* [[Fire risk assessment]]		* [[Fire risk assessment]]
	* [[ALARP]]		* ALARP
	* [[Uncertainty analysis]]		* [[Uncertainty analysis]]

Minimum ignition energy

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	Flame quenching depends on heat lost as a flame passes through a sufficiently small gap. Beyler distinguishes the quenching distance from the minimum experimental safe gap, which also reflects possible ignition outside by emerging hot gases. Neither distance is simply an energy value. Their relationship to ignition sensitivity does not make them interchangeable equipment parameters.<ref name="B-181-182" />		Flame quenching depends on heat lost as a flame passes through a sufficiently small gap. Beyler distinguishes the quenching distance from the minimum experimental safe gap, which also reflects possible ignition outside by emerging hot gases. Neither distance is simply an energy value. Their relationship to ignition sensitivity does not make them interchangeable equipment parameters.<ref name="B-181-182" />

	These source-control concepts are relevant to the separate topic [[Hazardous area classification~~\|Hazardous area classification]]~~. The ignition-energy discussion here does not establish a zone or division, an equipment category or a permissible installation. It describes the physical basis for comparing certain ignition sources with specified combustible mixtures.<ref name="B-181" /><ref name="Z-402" />		These source-control concepts are relevant to the separate topic Hazardous area classification. The ignition-energy discussion here does not establish a zone or division, an equipment category or a permissible installation. It describes the physical basis for comparing certain ignition sources with specified combustible mixtures.<ref name="B-181" /><ref name="Z-402" />

	Finally, an assessment retains both the ignition conditions and the consequences if ignition occurs. Mixture formation, electrical or mechanical source characteristics and subsequent flame propagation are separate parts of that sequence. A favourable comparison with one measured MIE does not evaluate every alternative source or mixture state. The source data remain conditional on their material and experimental context.<ref name="Z-402" /><ref name="Z-405" /><ref name="N-4" />		Finally, an assessment retains both the ignition conditions and the consequences if ignition occurs. Mixture formation, electrical or mechanical source characteristics and subsequent flame propagation are separate parts of that sequence. A favourable comparison with one measured MIE does not evaluate every alternative source or mixture state. The source data remain conditional on their material and experimental context.<ref name="Z-402" /><ref name="Z-405" /><ref name="N-4" />

Oxygen consumption principle

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	The '''oxygen consumption principle''' states that the burning of organic fuels releases a nearly constant amount of heat per unit mass of oxygen consumed, about 13.1 kJ per gram of oxygen.<ref name="JA-45">Janssens (2002), p. 3-45.</ref> Thornton found this regularity in 1917 for organic liquids and gases. Huggett later showed that it also holds for organic solids, with an average value that is accurate within ±5 % with very few exceptions.<ref name="TH">Thornton (1917) and Huggett (1980), as cited in Janssens (2002), p. 3-45.</ref> The [[heat release rate]] of a fire can therefore be determined by measuring how much oxygen the fire removes from the air, without knowing exactly what is burning.<ref name="JA-45" />		The '''oxygen consumption principle''' states that the burning of organic fuels releases a nearly constant amount of heat per unit mass of oxygen consumed, about 13.1 kJ per gram of oxygen.<ref name="JA-45">Janssens (2002), p. 3-45.</ref> Thornton found this regularity in 1917 for organic liquids and gases. Huggett later showed that it also holds for organic solids, with an average value that is accurate within ±5 % with very few exceptions.<ref name="TH">Thornton (1917) and Huggett (1980), as cited in Janssens (2002), p. 3-45.</ref> The [[heat release rate]] of a fire can therefore be determined by measuring how much oxygen the fire removes from the air, without knowing exactly what is burning.<ref name="JA-45" />

	This idea is the basis of oxygen consumption calorimetry. The method is regarded as the most accurate and practical technique for measuring heat release rates in fire experiments, at bench scale and at large scale.<ref name="JA-46">Janssens (2002), p. 3-46.</ref> The [[cone calorimeter]], the [[room corner test]] and the [[Single Burning Item test]] all rely on it.<ref name="BA-64">Babrauskas (2002a), p. 3-64.</ref><ref name="JA-58">Janssens (2002), p. 3-58.</ref><ref name="BB-32">Babrauskas (2002b), p. 3-32.</ref> The heat release rate is the single most important parameter characterising a fire, and in many fire experiments it is measured by oxygen consumption calorimetry.<ref name="HM-31">Hamins and McGrattan (2007), p. 3-1.</ref><ref name="HM-32">Hamins and McGrattan (2007), p. 3-2.</ref>		This idea is the basis of oxygen consumption calorimetry. The method is regarded as the most accurate and practical technique for measuring heat release rates in fire experiments, at bench scale and at large scale.<ref name="JA-46">Janssens (2002), p. 3-46.</ref> The [[cone calorimeter]], the [[room corner test]] and the Single Burning Item test all rely on it.<ref name="BA-64">Babrauskas (2002a), p. 3-64.</ref><ref name="JA-58">Janssens (2002), p. 3-58.</ref><ref name="BB-32">Babrauskas (2002b), p. 3-32.</ref> The heat release rate is the single most important parameter characterising a fire, and in many fire experiments it is measured by oxygen consumption calorimetry.<ref name="HM-31">Hamins and McGrattan (2007), p. 3-1.</ref><ref name="HM-32">Hamins and McGrattan (2007), p. 3-2.</ref>

	== Principle ==		== Principle ==

Oxygen depletion

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	A second misconception is that the oxygen concentration alone tells whether a flame can survive. The measured extinction limits range from about 12 to 15 per cent and depend on the size of the fire, the flow conditions and the gas that dilutes the air.<ref name="B-184" /> CFAST and the Fire Dynamics Simulator also express their limits differently, as a mass fraction and as a volume fraction.<ref name="CFAST-13" /><ref name="FDS-63" />		A second misconception is that the oxygen concentration alone tells whether a flame can survive. The measured extinction limits range from about 12 to 15 per cent and depend on the size of the fire, the flow conditions and the gas that dilutes the air.<ref name="B-184" /> CFAST and the Fire Dynamics Simulator also express their limits differently, as a mass fraction and as a volume fraction.<ref name="CFAST-13" /><ref name="FDS-63" />

	The equation for the time to incapacitation is based on healthy people at rest exposed to low air pressure at altitude, not on fire victims.<ref name="P-107" /> It does not include the effects of heat, irritant gases or carbon monoxide, which must be added separately.<ref name="P-110" /> The exposure limits for inert gases were set for extinguishing systems and cannot simply be transferred to an [[oxygen reduction system]], for which the sources cited in this article give no data.<ref name="DN-184" />		The equation for the time to incapacitation is based on healthy people at rest exposed to low air pressure at altitude, not on fire victims.<ref name="P-107" /> It does not include the effects of heat, irritant gases or carbon monoxide, which must be added separately.<ref name="P-110" /> The exposure limits for inert gases were set for extinguishing systems and cannot simply be transferred to an oxygen reduction system, for which the sources cited in this article give no data.<ref name="DN-184" />

	== See also ==		== See also ==

Main Page

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	== About this wiki ==		== About this wiki ==
	<div class="fsa-mp-about-text">The wiki is being expanded. Grey links lead to pages that have not yet been created.</div>		<div class="fsa-mp-about-text">The wiki is being expanded. Grey links lead to pages that have not yet been created.</div>
	<div class="fsa-mp-about-links">[[Special:Categories\|Category index]] · [[Special:RecentChanges\|Recent changes]] · ~~[[Talk:Main Page\|~~Discuss this page]]</div>		<div class="fsa-mp-about-links">[[Special:Categories\|Category index]] · [[Special:RecentChanges\|Recent changes]] · Discuss this page</div>
	</div>		</div>
	</div>		</div>

Lithium-ion battery fire

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	How often electric cars catch fire is largely unknown, because there are no reliable datasets.<ref name="NIPV-54">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 54.</ref> The report judges that a parked electric car is unlikely to catch fire more often than a fossil-fuelled car. Charging, however, is expected to raise the probability, because it adds an activity, the technology is still in its teething phase and existing electrical installations may not be safe enough.<ref name="NIPV-28">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 28.</ref> Ageing probably raises the internal resistance of the cells, which increases the heat they produce. An older battery also holds a lower maximum charge, however, so its thermal runaway is less intense and releases fewer flammable gases.<ref name="NIPV-28" />		How often electric cars catch fire is largely unknown, because there are no reliable datasets.<ref name="NIPV-54">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 54.</ref> The report judges that a parked electric car is unlikely to catch fire more often than a fossil-fuelled car. Charging, however, is expected to raise the probability, because it adds an activity, the technology is still in its teething phase and existing electrical installations may not be safe enough.<ref name="NIPV-28">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 28.</ref> Ageing probably raises the internal resistance of the cells, which increases the heat they produce. An older battery also holds a lower maximum charge, however, so its thermal runaway is less intense and releases fewer flammable gases.<ref name="NIPV-28" />

	The NIPV report covers only lithium-ion passenger cars in Dutch indoor car parks, and "lithium-ion" itself covers many kinds of lithium batteries that respond differently to fire.<ref name="NIPV-18" /> It warns that test results vary greatly with the amount of fuel, the battery capacity and the plastics in the car, so single studies cannot simply be generalised.<ref name="NIPV-20" /> Battery packs can also be combined into systems of 10 to 400 kWh, for example in trucks and electric ships. Stationary installations such as a [[battery energy storage system]] lie outside the report's scope.<ref name="NIPV-21" /><ref name="NIPV-18" /> Open questions include the exact process of thermal runaway, the conditions under which packs re-ignite and the best detection and suppression systems.<ref name="NIPV-55">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 55.</ref>		The NIPV report covers only lithium-ion passenger cars in Dutch indoor car parks, and "lithium-ion" itself covers many kinds of lithium batteries that respond differently to fire.<ref name="NIPV-18" /> It warns that test results vary greatly with the amount of fuel, the battery capacity and the plastics in the car, so single studies cannot simply be generalised.<ref name="NIPV-20" /> Battery packs can also be combined into systems of 10 to 400 kWh, for example in trucks and electric ships. Stationary installations such as a battery energy storage system lie outside the report's scope.<ref name="NIPV-21" /><ref name="NIPV-18" /> Open questions include the exact process of thermal runaway, the conditions under which packs re-ignite and the best detection and suppression systems.<ref name="NIPV-55">Van der Graaf et al. (2021/2023), p. 55.</ref>

	== See also ==		== See also ==

Ignition source

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	== Hazardous areas and prevention ==		== Hazardous areas and prevention ==

	For [[Hazardous area classification]], the source inventory has to be related to the potential presence of a flammable atmosphere. The IFEG gas and vapour discussion identifies mixture concentration as a separate part of ignition prevention. Removing one possible source does not establish that the atmosphere is outside its flammable range.<ref name="IFEG-3.3-2" />		For Hazardous area classification, the source inventory has to be related to the potential presence of a flammable atmosphere. The IFEG gas and vapour discussion identifies mixture concentration as a separate part of ignition prevention. Removing one possible source does not establish that the atmosphere is outside its flammable range.<ref name="IFEG-3.3-2" />

	Prevention can address an activity, the flammable atmosphere or the separation of fuel from energy. Detection and response act on a fire after ignition. The suitable combination depends on whether the source is permanent equipment, a temporary task or an internal reaction. One generic prohibition cannot cover all these mechanisms.<ref name="IFEG-2.4-4" /><ref name="NUREG-6850-6-21" />		Prevention can address an activity, the flammable atmosphere or the separation of fuel from energy. Detection and response act on a fire after ignition. The suitable combination depends on whether the source is permanent equipment, a temporary task or an internal reaction. One generic prohibition cannot cover all these mechanisms.<ref name="IFEG-2.4-4" /><ref name="NUREG-6850-6-21" />
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	* [[Fire triangle]]		* [[Fire triangle]]
	* [[Photovoltaic system fire]]		* Photovoltaic system fire

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==

Jet fire

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	Beyler describes roughly comparable radiative and convective contributions in some high-flux regions. Other gaseous propane tests reported a different balance. A radiation-only estimate therefore cannot generally reproduce total impingement heating. The relevant exposure includes the local gas motion and thermal environment as well as radiation.<ref name="B302" />		Beyler describes roughly comparable radiative and convective contributions in some high-flux regions. Other gaseous propane tests reported a different balance. A radiation-only estimate therefore cannot generally reproduce total impingement heating. The relevant exposure includes the local gas motion and thermal environment as well as radiation.<ref name="B302" />

	A prescribed ~~[[Hydrocarbon fire curve\|~~hydrocarbon fire curve]] describes a temperature–time exposure associated with oil or gas fire testing. Van Rossum distinguishes such agreed histories from temperatures developing in an actual scenario. The curve and the local jet-impingement flux consequently describe different inputs. Substituting one for the other requires a thermal assessment rather than a change of label.<ref name="VR86">Van Rossum (2027), §8.6.</ref><ref name="B302" />		A prescribed hydrocarbon fire curve describes a temperature–time exposure associated with oil or gas fire testing. Van Rossum distinguishes such agreed histories from temperatures developing in an actual scenario. The curve and the local jet-impingement flux consequently describe different inputs. Substituting one for the other requires a thermal assessment rather than a change of label.<ref name="VR86">Van Rossum (2027), §8.6.</ref><ref name="B302" />

	== Mitigation, continuing release and assessment scope ==		== Mitigation, continuing release and assessment scope ==

Inerting

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	The word inert describes the diluent's role in the specified combustion problem. It does not mean that the resulting atmosphere is suitable for breathing. The handbook's discussion of inert-gas agents identifies reduced oxygen as their principal physiological hazard. Fire prevention and the assessment of human exposure therefore remain separate questions.<ref name="D-184">DiNenno (2002), p. 4-184.</ref>		The word inert describes the diluent's role in the specified combustion problem. It does not mean that the resulting atmosphere is suitable for breathing. The handbook's discussion of inert-gas agents identifies reduced oxygen as their principal physiological hazard. Fire prevention and the assessment of human exposure therefore remain separate questions.<ref name="D-184">DiNenno (2002), p. 4-184.</ref>

	The supplied vessel-purging methods also have a defined application scope. NUREG-1805 discusses tanks and process vessels, while Beyler examines fuel, oxidant and diluent mixtures. These calculations do not constitute a complete design description for an ~~[[Oxygen reduction system\|~~oxygen reduction system]]. The shared oxygen-control principle does not supply every installation-specific operating requirement.<ref name="N-27" /><ref name="B-179" />		The supplied vessel-purging methods also have a defined application scope. NUREG-1805 discusses tanks and process vessels, while Beyler examines fuel, oxidant and diluent mixtures. These calculations do not constitute a complete design description for an oxygen reduction system. The shared oxygen-control principle does not supply every installation-specific operating requirement.<ref name="N-27" /><ref name="B-179" />

	== Limiting oxygen concentration ==		== Limiting oxygen concentration ==

Hydraulic calculation

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	* [[Dry pipe sprinkler system]]		* [[Dry pipe sprinkler system]]
	* [[Deluge system]]		* [[Deluge system]]
	* [[ESFR sprinkler]]		* ESFR sprinkler
	* [[Sprinkler head]]		* [[Sprinkler head]]

Flashover

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	* [[Fire spread]]		* [[Fire spread]]
	* [[Fire dynamics]]		* [[Fire dynamics]]
	* [[Glass breakage in fire]]		* Glass breakage in fire

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==

Gaseous extinguishing system

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	Clean agents are limited by toxicity data. For halocarbons, the NOAEL is the highest concentration at which no adverse effect on the heart was observed in animal tests. The lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) is the lowest concentration at which an effect was measured.<ref name="DN-183" /> Where no further modelling data exist, the design concentration in occupied areas must be below the NOAEL. On this basis, HFC-227ea, HFC-23 and FC-3-1-10 are acceptable for normally occupied areas.<ref name="DN-184" />		Clean agents are limited by toxicity data. For halocarbons, the NOAEL is the highest concentration at which no adverse effect on the heart was observed in animal tests. The lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) is the lowest concentration at which an effect was measured.<ref name="DN-183" /> Where no further modelling data exist, the design concentration in occupied areas must be below the NOAEL. On this basis, HFC-227ea, HFC-23 and FC-3-1-10 are acceptable for normally occupied areas.<ref name="DN-184" />

	Inert gases are physiologically inert; their hazard is the low oxygen concentration that they create. Exposure is limited to 5 minutes up to 43 % agent (12 % residual oxygen), to 3 minutes between 43 and 52 %, and to 30 seconds above 52 %.<ref name="DN-184" /> Keeping a room permanently at a reduced oxygen level is a different approach, described under [[oxygen reduction system]].		Inert gases are physiologically inert; their hazard is the low oxygen concentration that they create. Exposure is limited to 5 minutes up to 43 % agent (12 % residual oxygen), to 3 minutes between 43 and 52 %, and to 30 seconds above 52 %.<ref name="DN-184" /> Keeping a room permanently at a reduced oxygen level is a different approach, described under oxygen reduction system.

	[[File:fse-gaseous-extinguishing-system-v4.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Step chart of allowed exposure time against inert gas concentration: 5 min up to 43 %, 3 min from 43 to 52 %, 30 s above 52 %.\|Exposure time limits for inert gas agents, with the corresponding residual oxygen concentration. Based on DiNenno (2002), p. 4-184.]]		[[File:fse-gaseous-extinguishing-system-v4.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Step chart of allowed exposure time against inert gas concentration: 5 min up to 43 %, 3 min from 43 to 52 %, 30 s above 52 %.\|Exposure time limits for inert gas agents, with the corresponding residual oxygen concentration. Based on DiNenno (2002), p. 4-184.]]

High-rise building

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	* [[Stay-put strategy]]		* [[Stay-put strategy]]
	* [[Evacuation lift]]		* [[Evacuation lift]]
	* [[Mass timber]]		* Mass timber

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==

Firefighting

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	== Ventilation, backdraft and smoke explosions ==		== Ventilation, backdraft and smoke explosions ==

	Firefighters also change the ventilation of a burning building. [[Positive pressure ventilation]] uses fans to blow fresh air into an enclosure, creating a pressure difference that drives the existing air and combustion products out through an exit opening. It is used to influence the degree of ventilation, to assist firefighting and to influence the burning itself.<ref name="NUREG-F46">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-46.</ref>		Firefighters also change the ventilation of a burning building. Positive pressure ventilation uses fans to blow fresh air into an enclosure, creating a pressure difference that drives the existing air and combustion products out through an exit opening. It is used to influence the degree of ventilation, to assist firefighting and to influence the burning itself.<ref name="NUREG-F46">Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-46.</ref>
	[[File:fse-firefighting-v3.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Fan airflow changes smoke flow and can supply oxygen to hot unburned gases.\|Ventilation can alter both visibility and combustion conditions. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-46 and Van Rossum (2027), §4.9.]]		[[File:fse-firefighting-v3.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Fan airflow changes smoke flow and can supply oxygen to hot unburned gases.\|Ventilation can alter both visibility and combustion conditions. Based on Iqbal and Salley (2004), p. F-46 and Van Rossum (2027), §4.9.]]

Fire service access

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	* [[Hose reel]]		* [[Hose reel]]
	* [[Positive pressure ventilation]]		* Positive pressure ventilation
	* [[Fire extinguisher]]		* [[Fire extinguisher]]

Fire risk

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	People judge the same risk in different ways. Experts mainly weigh the calculated reduction in fire risk, while ordinary people also weigh costs and other needs. Enforcers act on behalf of society, and managers such as builders are most directly affected by the costs.<ref name="WH-5-1" /> The reduced fire risk of a home sprinkler system, for example, appears to be valued less by the average citizen than the benefit of a new car.<ref name="WH-5-1" /> Risks that are objectively equal are also perceived differently: people prefer certain over uncertain, familiar over unfamiliar, voluntary over involuntary and ordinary over dramatic risks.<ref name="WH-5-3" /> Dying in a fire is perceived as worse than dying in a car accident, and most people who die in fires die at home.<ref name="VR-7">Van Rossum (2027), §7.</ref>		People judge the same risk in different ways. Experts mainly weigh the calculated reduction in fire risk, while ordinary people also weigh costs and other needs. Enforcers act on behalf of society, and managers such as builders are most directly affected by the costs.<ref name="WH-5-1" /> The reduced fire risk of a home sprinkler system, for example, appears to be valued less by the average citizen than the benefit of a new car.<ref name="WH-5-1" /> Risks that are objectively equal are also perceived differently: people prefer certain over uncertain, familiar over unfamiliar, voluntary over involuntary and ordinary over dramatic risks.<ref name="WH-5-3" /> Dying in a fire is perceived as worse than dying in a car accident, and most people who die in fires die at home.<ref name="VR-7">Van Rossum (2027), §7.</ref>

	Reducing fire risk may even increase other risks, as with the potential damage to the ozone layer from halon extinguishing agents. The goal that comes closest to zero risk is risk as low as is technically possible. In fire protection engineering, this may mean accepting the residual risk after all identified risk reduction measures have been adopted. A complication is that this residual risk may then be perceived as zero, although a non-zero risk remains.<ref name="WH-5-4" /> In Australia, workplace health and safety legislation also requires safe design, which a code of practice defines as eliminating risks to health and safety or, if this is not ~~[[ALARP\|~~reasonably practicable]], minimising them.<ref name="ABCB-25">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 25.</ref>		Reducing fire risk may even increase other risks, as with the potential damage to the ozone layer from halon extinguishing agents. The goal that comes closest to zero risk is risk as low as is technically possible. In fire protection engineering, this may mean accepting the residual risk after all identified risk reduction measures have been adopted. A complication is that this residual risk may then be perceived as zero, although a non-zero risk remains.<ref name="WH-5-4" /> In Australia, workplace health and safety legislation also requires safe design, which a code of practice defines as eliminating risks to health and safety or, if this is not reasonably practicable, minimising them.<ref name="ABCB-25">Australian Building Codes Board (2020b), p. 25.</ref>

	Building regulations rarely state an acceptable risk in numbers. The Australian Fire Safety Verification Method Standard 2022 notes that the National Construction Code contains no specific safety targets. A design assessed with this method must therefore be at least equivalent to the deemed-to-satisfy provisions.<ref name="ABCB2022-7" /> It adds that a full quantitative probabilistic risk assessment would ideally be used, but the tools and data for it are not included. The method instead permits a simple deterministic comparison of available and required escape times, with additional checks.<ref name="ABCB2022-18">Australian Building Codes Board (2022), p. 18.</ref>		Building regulations rarely state an acceptable risk in numbers. The Australian Fire Safety Verification Method Standard 2022 notes that the National Construction Code contains no specific safety targets. A design assessed with this method must therefore be at least equivalent to the deemed-to-satisfy provisions.<ref name="ABCB2022-7" /> It adds that a full quantitative probabilistic risk assessment would ideally be used, but the tools and data for it are not included. The method instead permits a simple deterministic comparison of available and required escape times, with additional checks.<ref name="ABCB2022-18">Australian Building Codes Board (2022), p. 18.</ref>

Fire safety objectives

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	== See also ==		== See also ==

	* [[Qualitative design review]]		* Qualitative design review
	* [[Performance-based design]]		* [[Performance-based design]]
	* [[Prescriptive design]]		* [[Prescriptive design]]

Firefighting foam

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	* [[Fire suppression system]]		* [[Fire suppression system]]
	* [[Deluge system]]		* [[Deluge system]]
	* [[Boilover]]		* Boilover

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==

Fire testing

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	== Single Burning Item and room tests ==		== Single Burning Item and room tests ==

	The [[Single Burning Item test]] (SBI) uses two wall panels in a corner configuration without a ceiling and is a regulatory heat-release test for building products. It evaluates product response under that specified exposure. Results should not be interpreted as direct measurements of every wall or room installation.<ref name="Babrauskas-SBI">Babrauskas (2002), p. 3-32.</ref>		The Single Burning Item test (SBI) uses two wall panels in a corner configuration without a ceiling and is a regulatory heat-release test for building products. It evaluates product response under that specified exposure. Results should not be interpreted as direct measurements of every wall or room installation.<ref name="Babrauskas-SBI">Babrauskas (2002), p. 3-32.</ref>

	A [[Room corner test]] places materials in a small enclosure with a defined burner and opening, then collects combustion products in a hood and exhaust duct. It includes hot-layer and room-surface feedback that open-burning tests omit. This makes it useful when enclosure effects are expected to influence heat release.<ref name="Janssens-3-39" /><ref name="Babrauskas-3-1" />		A [[Room corner test]] places materials in a small enclosure with a defined burner and opening, then collects combustion products in a hood and exhaust duct. It includes hot-layer and room-surface feedback that open-burning tests omit. This makes it useful when enclosure effects are expected to influence heat release.<ref name="Janssens-3-39" /><ref name="Babrauskas-3-1" />
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	== Large-scale and system tests ==		== Large-scale and system tests ==

	A [[Large-scale facade fire test]] evaluates facade systems at a scale where joints, cavities, cladding layers and external flames can interact. Such tests are relevant to system behaviour that cannot be inferred reliably from small material specimens. The actual method and installation remain necessary when applying the result.<ref name="IFEG-1.6-7">Australian Building Codes Board et al. (2005), p. 1.6-7.</ref><ref name="CVM2-64" />		A Large-scale facade fire test evaluates facade systems at a scale where joints, cavities, cladding layers and external flames can interact. Such tests are relevant to system behaviour that cannot be inferred reliably from small material specimens. The actual method and installation remain necessary when applying the result.<ref name="IFEG-1.6-7">Australian Building Codes Board et al. (2005), p. 1.6-7.</ref><ref name="CVM2-64" />

	Fire-resistance tests expose structural and separating assemblies to a defined furnace curve. Milke explains that ASTM E119 addresses structural integrity, temperature, flame and hot-gas passage and, in some cases, hose-stream response. These criteria are distinct from reaction-to-fire measurements of a material's own combustion.<ref name="Milke-4-209" /><ref name="Milke-4-210">Milke (2002), pp. 4-209–4-210.</ref>		Fire-resistance tests expose structural and separating assemblies to a defined furnace curve. Milke explains that ASTM E119 addresses structural integrity, temperature, flame and hot-gas passage and, in some cases, hose-stream response. These criteria are distinct from reaction-to-fire measurements of a material's own combustion.<ref name="Milke-4-209" /><ref name="Milke-4-210">Milke (2002), pp. 4-209–4-210.</ref>

Flame spread

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	== Testing and measurement ==		== Testing and measurement ==

	The [[Single Burning Item test]] is described in the 2002 handbook as a European regulatory heat-release-rate test for building products. Two panels form a corner without a ceiling. This geometry differs from a complete room, so its result does not directly represent every installed exposure.<ref name="Babrauskas-3-32" />		The Single Burning Item test is described in the 2002 handbook as a European regulatory heat-release-rate test for building products. Two panels form a corner without a ceiling. This geometry differs from a complete room, so its result does not directly represent every installed exposure.<ref name="Babrauskas-3-32" />

	Quintiere discusses cone-calorimeter and lateral ignition and flame-spread tests as sources of material data. These methods helped replace less meaningful flammability indices with measurements linked to ignition and spread models. They do not remove all uncertainty in heat-transfer and material-property inputs.<ref name="Quintiere-2-247" />		Quintiere discusses cone-calorimeter and lateral ignition and flame-spread tests as sources of material data. These methods helped replace less meaningful flammability indices with measurements linked to ignition and spread models. They do not remove all uncertainty in heat-transfer and material-property inputs.<ref name="Quintiere-2-247" />

Flammability limits

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	* [[Fire triangle]]		* [[Fire triangle]]
	* [[Deflagration]]		* [[Deflagration]]
	* [[Hazardous area classification]]		* Hazardous area classification
	* [[Hydrogen safety]]		* [[Hydrogen safety]]
	* [[Minimum ignition energy]]		* [[Minimum ignition energy]]

Fire scenario

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	[[File:fse-fire-scenario-v2.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Funnel: many potential fire scenarios narrow to a few design fire scenarios, each turned into a design fire curve.\|From potential fire scenarios to design fires in three steps. Based on National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-27.]]		[[File:fse-fire-scenario-v2.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|alt=Funnel: many potential fire scenarios narrow to a few design fire scenarios, each turned into a design fire curve.\|From potential fire scenarios to design fires in three steps. Based on National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-27.]]

	Deliberately started fires are treated in the same way as accidental ones when design scenarios are chosen.<ref name="IFEG-1227" /> The IFEG recognise, however, that some large arson attacks and terrorist events may be beyond the capacity of the fire safety system and need other measures.<ref name="IFEG-1228">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-28.</ref> The selection is made by the stakeholders in the fire engineering brief.<ref name="IFEG-1227" /> At that stage, the design fires are defined and described as far as possible without calculation, in a largely ~~[[Qualitative design review\|~~qualitative review]] of the design.<ref name="IFEG-1229">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-29.</ref>		Deliberately started fires are treated in the same way as accidental ones when design scenarios are chosen.<ref name="IFEG-1227" /> The IFEG recognise, however, that some large arson attacks and terrorist events may be beyond the capacity of the fire safety system and need other measures.<ref name="IFEG-1228">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-28.</ref> The selection is made by the stakeholders in the fire engineering brief.<ref name="IFEG-1227" /> At that stage, the design fires are defined and described as far as possible without calculation, in a largely qualitative review of the design.<ref name="IFEG-1229">National Research Council of Canada et al. (2005), p. 1.2-29.</ref>

	Some regulations prescribe a minimum set of design scenarios. In New Zealand, Verification Method C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) contains ten design scenarios that must each be satisfied separately.<ref name="CVM2-7" /> They range from a fire that blocks an exit and a smouldering fire to horizontal and vertical fire spread, firefighting operations and a challenging fire.<ref name="CVM2-8">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 8.</ref> The scenarios are intended to give a diverse range of fire events that will challenge the design and its fire safety systems.<ref name="CVM2-7" /> Many can be satisfied by inspection or by providing features such as fire separations or automatic alarms.<ref name="CVM2-7" /> Only a few need a comparison of the available safe egress time (ASET) with the required safe egress time (RSET), or other computational modelling.<ref name="CVM2-7" />		Some regulations prescribe a minimum set of design scenarios. In New Zealand, Verification Method C/VM2 (second edition, 2025) contains ten design scenarios that must each be satisfied separately.<ref name="CVM2-7" /> They range from a fire that blocks an exit and a smouldering fire to horizontal and vertical fire spread, firefighting operations and a challenging fire.<ref name="CVM2-8">Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2025b), p. 8.</ref> The scenarios are intended to give a diverse range of fire events that will challenge the design and its fire safety systems.<ref name="CVM2-7" /> Many can be satisfied by inspection or by providing features such as fire separations or automatic alarms.<ref name="CVM2-7" /> Only a few need a comparison of the available safe egress time (ASET) with the required safe egress time (RSET), or other computational modelling.<ref name="CVM2-7" />

Flame detector

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	In explosion suppression systems, detectors, a power supply and control system and fast extinguishing units work together.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" /> Dust explosion applications usually use pressure sensors, while gas explosion applications can use pressure sensors or ultraviolet detectors.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" /> Of these, ultraviolet detectors give the fastest response.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" /> The control system includes interlocks that monitor the system itself, shut down processes and trigger alarms when the system activates.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" />		In explosion suppression systems, detectors, a power supply and control system and fast extinguishing units work together.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" /> Dust explosion applications usually use pressure sensors, while gas explosion applications can use pressure sensors or ultraviolet detectors.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" /> Of these, ultraviolet detectors give the fastest response.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" /> The control system includes interlocks that monitor the system itself, shut down processes and trigger alarms when the system activates.<ref name="Zalosh-3-417" />

	Detectors in such plants may be installed where a flammable gas atmosphere can form, and one way to prevent an explosion there is to exclude ignition sources.<ref name="Beyler-2-181">Beyler (2002b), p. 2-181.</ref> Low-power equipment can be designed so that even its worst fault cannot release the minimum ignition energy of a given gas; such equipment is called intrinsically safe.<ref name="Beyler-2-181" /> Where this is not possible, the equipment can be housed in an explosion-proof enclosure that stops a flame from spreading out of it.<ref name="Beyler-2-181" /> The fuel oil tank room of World Trade Center 7 is an example. All its electrical devices were explosion proof, suitable for Class 1, Division 1, Group C in the [[hazardous area classification]] of the New York City building code.<ref name="GJ-27">Grill and Johnson (2005a), p. 27.</ref>		Detectors in such plants may be installed where a flammable gas atmosphere can form, and one way to prevent an explosion there is to exclude ignition sources.<ref name="Beyler-2-181">Beyler (2002b), p. 2-181.</ref> Low-power equipment can be designed so that even its worst fault cannot release the minimum ignition energy of a given gas; such equipment is called intrinsically safe.<ref name="Beyler-2-181" /> Where this is not possible, the equipment can be housed in an explosion-proof enclosure that stops a flame from spreading out of it.<ref name="Beyler-2-181" /> The fuel oil tank room of World Trade Center 7 is an example. All its electrical devices were explosion proof, suitable for Class 1, Division 1, Group C in the hazardous area classification of the New York City building code.<ref name="GJ-27">Grill and Johnson (2005a), p. 27.</ref>

	== Limits ==		== Limits ==